INFORMATION 

JL  A  ^1   A       V-x  JL  X^  JL  T  JL  ^L   JL  JL    .A.  V_X  «L   ^1 

Elementary  Electricity 
Motor  Car  Electric  Systems 

The  Gas  Engine  ;from  an  Ignition 

Point  of  VieW 
Driving  the  Car 

HARVEY  E.  PHILLIPS 


American  Electrical  Supply  Co. 

517  ADAMS  ST. 

DAYTON,  OHIO 

EE=DISTRIBUTOR== 


********* 


s.  js.  ITS  a, 

Scut*  ™i+*>n  Place 


H.  F.  WES, 
1841  &>.  n  Place 


HARVEY  E.  PHILLIPS 


ELECTRICAL  ENGINEER 
ELECTRICAL  INVENTOR 
DIRECTOR  OF  EDUCATION 

CHIEF  ENGINEER 
GENERAL  MANAGER 
SALES  MANAGER 


FORMERLY 

BELL  TELEPHONE  Co. 

NATIONAL  CASH  REGISTER  Co. 

DAYTON  ENGINEERING  LABORATORIES  Co. 


NOW 


PHILLIPS  ENGINEERING  Co. 

AUTO  ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  PUBLISHING  Co. 

"THE  DIAMOND  PRESS" 


CONSULTING  ENGINEER  TO  AVIATION  MECHANICS 
TRAINING  SCHOOLS 


INFORMATION 


Elementary  Electricity 


Motor  Car  Electric  Systems 


The  Gas  Engine  from  an  Ignition 
Point  of  View 


Driving  the  Car 


BY 

HARVEY  E.  PHILLIPS 


Price,  $2.50 


American  Electrical  Supply  Co.  : 

517  ADAMS  ST. 

DAYTON,  OHIO 

=EEDISTmBUTOR== 


PREFACE 


The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  present  in  a  compact,  con- 
venient form,  at  a  price  within  the  reach  of  all,  a  reasonably 
comprehensive  and  thorough  training  course  for  teachers  and 
students  in  mechanics'  training  schools;  also  repairmen  and 
owners  who  desire  to  learn. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  will  be  found  to  meet  the  need 
for  a  more  adequate  course,  which  is  at  the  same  time  brief. 
To  those,  who  have  been  accustomed  to  the  use  of  outline  courses, 
this  book  will  be  very  helpful.  It  will  be  found  that  the  form 
of  the  lessons  lends  itself  readily  to  adaptation  to  class  work, 
and  it  is  believed  that  the  course  will  be  found  practicable  for  use 
in  class  work. 

It  is  the  earnest  hope  of  the  author  that  the  book  will  ap- 
preciably aid  in  the  greatly  needed  and  the  exceedingly  im- 
portant work  of  preparing  men  for  certain  lines  of  work. 

The  author  gratefully  acknowledges  his  obligation  to  Mr. 
James  M.  Copland,  Chief  Instructor  Army  Schools,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.;  Professor'C.  G.  Arthur,  Detroit  Institute  of  Technology, 
Detroit,  Mich.,  the  Remy  Electric  Company,  of  Anderson,  Ind., 
for  valuable  criticisms,  suggestions,  and  matter  used  in  this  book, 
also  Mr.  H.  C.  Brokaw,  of  the  West  Side  Y.  M.  C.  A.  New  York 
City,  for  the  Information  covering  the  driving  course. 

The  price  of  this  book  is  $2.50  postpaid  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

HARVEY   E.   PHILLIPS. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Section  1.    Elementary  electricity 9 

Mechanical  principles    11 

Mechanical  units  and  terms 13 

Electrical   principles    15 

Voltage  drop 20 

Wire  sizes  and  drop 21 

Ohms  law 22 

Watt  law 22 

Magnetism    25 

Information  (Electrical  terms  explained) 28 

Switches 32 

Ignition    '. 34 

Ignition  coils   34 

Interrupters    34 

Condensers    35 

Operation  of  coil  and  condenser 36 

Distributors  (Distributor  and  timer  combined y 37 

Purpose  of  the  breaker  mechanism 37 

Care  and  adjustment  of  contacts 37 

Distribution  of  high  tension  current 38 

The  rotor 38 

Spark  plugs   39 

Ignition  theory   40 

Theory  of  the  storage  battery 45 

The  storage  battery  .". 50 

Battery  instruction    53 

Motors    '.,... 60 

Generators 60 

Water  analogy 62 

Motor  and  generator  instruction 62 

Soldering 67* 

Inspection 68 

Signs  and  Symbols 70 

Section  2.    Driving  the  car 72 

Before  leaving  the  garage 72 

Starting   crank    72 

Starting  pedal 72 

Clutch  pedal '.  72 

Running  brake  pedal  73 

Gear  shifting  lever 73 

Accelerator  pedal   73 

Throttle  lever    73 

Emergency  brake  lever 74 

Spark  control  lever   74 

Ignition  switch    74 

Steering  wheel    74 

Priming  device  or  "choke" 75 

The  gasoline  tank 75 

The  lubricator  76 

The  water  tank   (radiator) 76 

Tires 76 

To  start  the  motor 76 

To  start  the  car 77 

To  stop  the  car 78 

6 


2047O72 


CONTENTS 

Page 

To  reverse  the  car  78 

Turning  in  narrow  streets  78 

Turning  corners    79 

Climbing  hills   79 

Descending  hills   80 

Driving  in  congested  streets  80 

Shifting  gears  by  touch  and  not  by  sight 81 

Washing  the  car    81 

Cautions 81 

Section  3.    The  gas  engine  from  an  ignition  point  of  view 83 

The  cycle   84 

Carburetipn    84 

Acceleration  and  gasoline  consumption 87 

The  dash  pot, 87 

The  metering  pin  87 

Proportions  of  gasoline  and  air 87 

Carburetor  with  metering  pin  and  dash  pot 87 

Priming  the  carburetor 88 

Carburetor  heating    88 

Parts  to  adjust  88 

Float  adjustment   88 

Auxiliary  air  valve  adjustment 88 

Adjusting  the  average  carburetor 89 

Valves 89 

The  inlet  valve   90 

The  exhaust  valve   90 

Valve  construction   90 

Valve  timing   90 

Valve  opening  and  closing 91 

Inlet  valve  opening 91 

Inlet  valve  closing   91 

Exhaust  valve  opening  91 

Exhaust  valve  closing  91 

Periods  of  time  valves  are  open 91 

Valve  timing  position  92 

Setting  valves  of  a  single  cylinder  engine 92 

Setting  exhaust  valve   92 

Setting  inlet  valve  92 

Setting  valves  of  a  multiple  cylinder  engine 93 

Timing  by  marks  on  a  flywheel 93 

Timing  a  "T"  head  engine 93 

Procedure  of  marking  a  fly  wheel 94 

Setting  exhaust  cam   94 

Setting  inlet  cam   94 

Timing  valves  of  an  "L"  head  engine 94 

Checking  valve  timing   94 

Average  valve  timing   95 

Timing  valves  of  six  cylinder  engines 95 

Firing  orders  95 

Ignition  timing   96 

Advance  and  retard  of  spark 96 

Control  of  the  spark 96 

Automatic  control    96 

Time  of  spark  and  time  of  combustion 97 

Time  of  spark  to  occur 98 

Relation  of  speed  to  time  of  the  spark 98 

Speed  relation  of  crank  shaft,  cam  shaft,  armature  of  magneto, 

and  distributor   98 

Magneto  troubles    99 

Spark  plug  troubles  100 

Care  of  spark  plugs 100 

Ignition  system  troubles 100 

Compression  system  troubles    101 

Carburetor  system  troubles  101 

Gas   energy  theory    102 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Section  4.    Delco  Systems  (1910  to  1915  incl.) 104 

Wiring  diagrams    105 

Switches    135 

Distributors    141 

Installing  and  adjusting  contacts 145 

Installing  distributor  heads   147 

Installing  rotors  and  condensers 147 

Ignition  coils,  levers,  and  spark  plugs 148 

Ignition  timing   149 

Ignition  coils   149 

Ignition  relay,  care  and  adjustment 150 

Resistence  units    152 

Cut-out  relay 152 

Ampere  hour  meter , 153 

Controller  switch    154 

Magnetic  latch  coil   155 

Voltage  regulator  155 

Circuit-breaking   relay 157 

Current   regulator 158 

Battery  charging 158 

Troubles  and  remedies 159 

Testing : 159 

Troubles 161 

Motor  and  generator  internal  circuit  diagrams 164 

Section  5.     1916  Delco  Systems 166 

Wiring  diagrams — 

Fig.  1,     Cadillac  8  167 

Fig.  2.     Buick  D  44,  D  45,  D  46  and  D  47 168 

Fig.  3.  Auburn  6-40,  Buick  D  54,  D  55  and  truck,  Davis  38  B, 
38  C  and  6  E,  Meteor  6-40,  Moon  6-30  and  6-40,  Oak- 
land 38,  Sayers-Scoville  6  and  Westcott  41  and  51. ..  169 

Fig.  4.     Hudson   6-40    170 

Fig.  5.     Oldsmobile  8    171 

Fig.  6.     Oakland  4  and  Oldsmobile  43 172 

Fig.  7.     Packard  lighting  and  ignition 173 

Lubrication  174 

Ignition  coil  174 

Distributor  and  timer   174 

The  Ammeter 174 

Tools  and  tests   175 

Motoring  generator   176 

Testing 176 

Resistance  units    177 

Condenser   177 

Testing 178 

Ignition  timing   178 

Section  6.    Automobile  Electric  Systems 179 

Atwater  Kent  systems   180 

Auto-Lite  systems    186 

Bosch  starting  systems  191 

Bijur  systems    192 

Chalmers   (Entz)   systems   196 

Dyneto   systems    197 

Gray  and  Davis 199 

North-East   system    206 

Remy    systems 208 

Simms-Huff  systems    219 

Splitdorf-Apelco  systems    .  . . 221 

Wagner  systems   223 

Ward  Leonard  controller   228 

Section  7.     Magnetos    230 

Phillips  magnet  charger 233 

Bosch  magnetos    233 

Eisemann  magnetos   243 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Mea  magnetos  249 

Remy  magnetos    255 

Simms   magnetos 260 

Splitdorf  systems   265 

Section  8.    Electric  Testing .268 

Water  analogies   269 

Symbols 272 

Cranking  circuits 272 

Battery  testing  273 

Switch  testing  275 

Testing  at  motor 277 

Battery  ground  test '. 278 

Special  battery  test 279 

Generator  tests   280 

Testing  circuits  with  and  without  cut-out  relay    280 

Voltage  and  current  regulation 286 

Lighting  system  tests   289 

Ignition  coil  tests  293 

Condenser   tests    295 

Cut-out  and  circuit-breaking  relays 297 

Phillips  test  set •. 300 

Third  brush  regulation 301 

Hydrometer 303 

Section  9.    1917  Internal  circuit  and  wiring  diagrams 304 

Note. — The  names  of  cars  are  arranged  alphabetically. 


SECTION  I 

ELEMENTARY   ELECTRICITY 


ELEMENTARY  ELECTRICITY 

1.  While  we  do  not  know  what  electricity  is,  its  action  is  well  understood,  and  when 
we  come  to  study  the  natural  laws  under  which  this  action  takes  place,  we  find  that  our  diffi- 
culties are  few  and  they  are  not  great  when  the  subject  is  presented  in  the  proper  way. 

2.  To  understand  the  principles  of  electricity,  we  must  first  understand  the  meaning 
of  many  electric  terms.    They  are  not  only  necessary  if  we  wish  to  understand  our  subject, 
but  they  are  such  that  when  we  have  grasped  their  full  meaning,  we  have  grasped  the  subject 
itself.    They  are  the  links  that  we  have  to  forge  before  we  can  make  a  chain,  and  when  they 
are  once  forged,  they  form  the  chain  itself. 

3.  In  magnetism,  we  have  a  very  important  thing.    Something  invisible  like  electricity, 
easy  to  understand  and  use,  and  controlled  by  a  few  simple  laws.    While  electricity  and  mag- 
netism are  two  different  things,  their  relationship  to  each  other  is  very  interesting. 

4.  Let  us  suppose  that  all  magnetism  was  to  cease  to  exist.    The  result  would  be  that 
all  of  our  electric  power  plants  would  become  useless,  because  the  generator  must  have  its 
magnetic  field  before  it  can  generate  a  current  of  electricity.     In  the  operation  of  electric 
apparatus  magnetism  plays  one  of  the  greatest  parts. 

5.  Electricity  for  our  purpose  may  be  looked  upon  as  existing  in  two  conditions,  these 
being  a  state  of  no  pressure  and  a  state  of  pressure.    A  comparison  is  often  made  of  the  action 
of  water  and  electricity  when  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  subject  clear. 

6.  If  we  had  a  large  body  of  water,  such  as  a  sea  or  lake,  as  a  means  of  power,  it  is 
useless;  that  is,  it  has  no  pressure  unless  we  let  some  of  it  fall  to  a  lower  level,  in  which  case 
the  water  that  falls  loses  its  head  or  pressure,  and  in  so  doing  it  gives  up  the  energy  that  was 
in  it;  or,  to  put  it  more  clearly,  it  does  a  certain  amount  of  work,  depending  upon  the  quantity 
that  falls  and  the  distance  through  which  it  travels. 

7.  In  a  similar  way  we  may  say  that  electricity  exists  in  a  state  of  no  pressure,  but  we 
can  give  it  pressure  by  means  of  a  generator,  and  when  we  allow  the  electricity  to  escape,  as 
we  may  term  it,  it  gives  up  its  pressure,  then  it  is  like  water,  giving  up  energy  and  doing  work. 

8.  The  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done  depends  upon  the  pressure  and  the  rate  current 
flows.    We  know  that  electricity  is  invisible,  yet  there  is  pressure  behind  it  in  one  state  and  it 
flows  under  this  pressure. 

9.  We  cannot  measure  the  rate  or  flow  in  gallons  per  hour  as  we  do  in  water  system; 
instead,  we  measure  the  rate  it  flows  in  amperes.    We  haVe  said  the  electricity  to  flow  must 
have  pressure  behind  it.    In  a  water  system  water  flows  under  a  certain  number  of  pounds  of 
pressure.    In  an  electric  system,  current  flows  under  a  certain  number  of  volts  pressure. 

10.  When  a  wire  or  any  substance  is  used  to  transmit  current  from  one  place  to 
another  it  is  called  a  conductor.    These  conductors  offer  a  resistance  to  the  flow  of  electric 
current;  therefore,  we  must  have  some  means  of  measuring  this  resistance.     The  resistance 
offered  to  the  flow  of  current  depends  upon  the  kinds  of  metal  used  as  a  conductor,  its  area 
and  length.    The  ohm  is  the  unit  of  electric  resistance. 

11.  The  three  terms  just  mentioned:  the  volt,  as  the  unit  of  electric  pressure;  the 
ampere,  as  the  unit  of  electric  current,  and  the  ohm,  as  the  unit  of  electric  resistance,  are 
related  to  one  another,  this  relationship  being  known  as  Ohms  Law,  which  is  as  follows: 

12.  Volts  divided  by  Amperes  equals  Ohms. 
Volts  divided  by  Ohms  equals  Amperes. 
Amperes  multiplied  by  Ohms  equals  Volts, 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  11 

MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES. 

13.  To  thoroughly  understand  the  principles  of  electricity  it  is  necessary  to  know  first 
of  all  the  meaning  and  application  of  the  fundamental  mechanical  principles. 

14.  Nothing  can  be  accomplished  without  expending  energy.     In  other  words,  energy 
must  be  expended  when  any  work  has  to  be  done. 

15.  The  subject  of  energy  should  be  carefully  studied,  because  all  work  of  whatever 
kind  is  based  on  the  principles  or  laws  governing  the  transformation  and  transmission  of 
energy. 

16.  Energy  cannot  be  created,  nor  can  energy  be  destroyed.    When  energy  is  used  up 
in  doing  work,  it  is  simply  transformed  into  other  forms.    For  example,  when  a  gas  engine 
is  running,  it  depends  upon  the  fuel  as  to  how  long  it  will  run.    In  this  case,  we  say  that  the 
fuel  has  a  certain  amount  of  energy  stored  up  in  it,  and  a  gas  engine  is  simply  a  device  which 
is  designed  to  take  energy  from  the  fuel  and  transform  it  into  mechanical  motion. 

17.  This  mechanical  motion  is  represented  by  the  turning  of  the  crank  shaft.     A  gas 
engine,  therefore,  is  fundamentally  an  energy  transformer.    It  receives  energy  in  the  form  of 
stored  fuel  energy  and  transforms  part  of  it  into  mechanical  motion.    In  no  case  is  it  possible 
to  transform  all  of  the  energy  into  useful  work.    Any  heat  formed  and  radiated  represents  a 
certain  amount  of  lost  energy.     Friction  also  causes  a  further  loss. 

18.  When  we  come  to  consider  electricity,  we  will  see  that  it  is  only  energy  in  another 
form,  or  rather  a  means  of  transmitting  energy. 

19.  Work.     When  work  is  done,  energy  is  expended.     For  example,  if  a  weight  is 
resting  on  the  table  it  possesses  energy  which  can  be  expended  only  if  the  weight  is  allowed 
to  fall.    The  amount  of  energy  that  the  weight  is  capable  of  expending  depends  on  two  things: 

(a)  The  amount  of  weight. 

(b)  The  distance  the  weight  falls. 

20.  In  this  case  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the  weight  in  falling  is  equal  to  the  energy 
expended. 

21.  Another  important  fact  that  must  be  noted  here,  namely,  that  the  work  done  by 
the  weight  in  falling  is  exactly  equal  to  the  amount  of  work  that  must  be  done  in  order  to 
replace  the  weight  on  the  table. 

22.  Measurement  of  Work.     If  we  assume  the  weight  to  be  one  pound,  and  the 
distance  to  be  one  foot,  we  say  that  the  work  done  is  one  foot  pound. 

23.  That  is  to  say,  a  weight  of  one  pound  is  capable  of  doing  one  foot  pound  of  work 
when  it  falls  through  a  distance  of  one  foot. 

24.  Also  an  amount  of  work  equal  to  .one  foot  pound  must  be  done  in  order  to  raise  a 
weight  of  one  pound  through  a  vertical  height  of  one  foot. 

25.  The  foot  pound,  therefore,  is  taken  as  the  unit  for  measuring  Work  and  Energy  in 
a  mechanical  form. 

26.  Note  the  following  example  of  a  moving  weight: 

If  the  weight  is  attached  to  the  string  of  a  clock,  it  will  move  down  slowly  and  so 
drive  the  mechanism  of  the  clock.    Work  is  being  done  as  long  as  the  Weight  is  in  Motion. 

27.  When  the  weight  gets  to  the  bottom  is  must  be  raised  again,  and  work  must  be 
done  in  Moving  the  weight  up. 

28.  A  certain  amount  of  Energy,  therefore,  has  to  be  expended  in  winding  the  clock, 
and  the  weight  may  be  considered  as  a  means  of  storing  this  energy.    When  the  weight  has 
fallen  again  to  its  lowest  position,  it  has  delivered  an  amount  of  energy  exactly  equal  to  the 
amount  expended  in  raising  it. 

29.  If  the  weight  is  ten  pounds  and  the  distance  is  three  feet,  the  amount  of  work  is 
10  multiplied  by  3,  or  30  foot  pounds. 

30.  How  much  work  must  be  done  to  raise  a  weight  of  55  pounds  to  a  height  of  10 
feet? 


12  INFORMATION 

55  multiplied  by  10  equals  550  foot  pounds  (usually  written  this  way,  55X10  =  550 
foot  pounds).  It  must  be  noted  here  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  actually  have  a  weight  of  so 
many  pounds.  A  Force  (or  pressure)  gives  the  same  result,  if  it  causes  motion. 

31.  Work,  therefore,  can  always  be  calculated  if  we  know  the  weight,  force,  or  Pressure 
and  the  Distance  through  which  it  acts.    This  can  be  written  in  the  following  way: 

Weight  of  force  or  Distance  The  amount  of  work 

pressure  (meas-      Multiplied  by    (measured  hi    Equals          (measured  in 
ured  in  pounds)  feet)  foot  pounds) 

32.  Power.     No  mention  has  been  made  yet  of  the  length  of   tune  it  takes  to  do  a 
certain  amount  of  work.     The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  time  taken  to  do  work  makes  no 
difference  in  the  amount  of  work  done.    If  a  weight  of  10  pounds  has  to  be  raised  through  a 
height  of  5  feet,  it  will  take  50  foot  pounds  of  work  to  do  it.    The  time  spent  in  doing  work 
may  be  a  second  or  it  may  be  a  minute,  but  the  amount  of  work  remains  the  same. 

33.  When  time  is  taken  into  consideration  in  connection  with  doing  work,  it  determines 
the  Rate  at  which  Work  is  done. 

Suppose  two  men  start  out  to  do  the  same  amount  of  work.  One  man  finished  in 
4  hours,  while  the  other  man  takes  8  hours.  We  would  say  that  the  first  man  was  working 
twice  as  fast  as  the  second  man  because  he  did  the  job  in  half  the  time. 

34.  Another  way  of  looking  at  it  would  be  to  figure  that  if  the  first  man  kept  on 
working  for  8  hours  at  the  same  Rate  as  during  the  first  4  hours,  at  the  end  of  8  hours  he 
would  have  done  twice  as  much  work  as  the  second  man  in  the  same  Time. 

36.     It  is  quite  apparent  that  the  rate  at  which  he  is  doing  work  is  twice  as  great  as 
the  rate  at  which  the  other  man  is  doing  work. 

36.  The  rate  of  doing  work  is  a  measure  of  the  Power  developed. 

37.  If  a  weight  of  55  pounds  is  raised  10  feet  in  one  second,  work  is  being  done  at  the 
rate  of  55  times  10  divided  by  1,  or  550  pounds  per  second. 

This  can  be  written =  550  foot  pounds  per  second. 

38.  If  the  same  weight  is  raised  the  same  distance  in  two  seconds,  work  is  being  done 
at  the  rate  of  55  times  10  divided  by  2,  or  275  foot  pounds  per  second. 

55X10 
Also  written =275  foot  pounds  per  second. 

m 

39.  In  this  case  the  rate  of  doing  work  (Power)  is  just  one  half  as  much  as  in  the  first 
case.     To  illustrate  this,  suppose  the  distance  between  two  places  is  12  miles.     One  man 
walks  this  distance  in  6  hours.    The  rate  at  which  he  walks  is  divided  by  6  (or  12 -i- 6)  =2 
miles  per  hour. 

40.  Another  man  walks  the  12  miles  in  3  hours,  just  half  the  time  of  the  first  man. 
The  rate  at  which  he  walks  is  12  divided  by  3  (or  12-^3)  =4  miles  per  hour.    His  rate  is  twice 
as  great  as  that  of  the  first  man  because  he  covered  the  same  distance  in  half  the  time.    The 
distance  corresponds  to  the  amount  of  work  that  has  to  be  done,  and  the  rate  of  walking 
corresponds  to  the  rate  at  which  the  work  is  done. 

41.  While  the  amount  of  Work  is  the  same  for  both  men,  the  Rate  at  which  one  man 
works  is  just  twice  that  of  the  other  man,  because  he  does  the  same  amount  of  work  in  half 
the  time. 

42.  Measurement  of  Power.     We  have  seen  the  unit  of  measurement  of  Work  is  the 
Foot  Pound,  which  is  equal  to  the  lifting  of  one  pound  through  a  height  of  one  foot.     If  it 
takes  one  second  to  perform  this  amount  of  work,  the  rate  is  one  foot  pound  in  one  second, 
or  one  foot  pound  per  second. 

43.  When  the  word  "per"  is  used,  it  indicates  Rate.     (5  miles  per  hour  is  a  rate  of 
movement.    20  cents  per  gallon  is  a  rate  of  cost.)    One  foot  pound  per  second  is  a  very  small 
unit,  so  a  larger  unit  is  usually  taken  for  the  measurement  of  Power.    For  example; 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  13 

44.  When  an  amount  of  work  equal  to  550  foot  pounds  is  performed  in  one  second, 
Work  is  done  at  the  Rate  of  550  Foot  Pounds  per  second.    This  is  called  one  Horsepower, 
just  in  the  same  way  that  we  take  5,280  feet  and  call  this  distance  one  mile. 

45.  Equal  amounts  of  work  may  be  performed  in  a  number  of  different  ways.     For 
example,  10  pounds  raised  55  feet  equals  550  Foot  Pounds. 

11  Pounds  raised  50  feet  equals  550  Foot  Pounds. 

55  Pounds  raised  10  feet  equals  550  Foot  Pounds. 

550  Pounds  raised    1  foot  equals  550  Foot  Pounds. 

46.  And  if  the  time  taken  is  one  second  in  each  case,  the  same  power  is  required. 

47.  How  many  horsepower  would  be  necessary  to  raise  a  weight  of  500  pounds  to  a 
height  of  110  feet  in  10  seconds? 

The  total  amount  of  work  to  be  done  is 

500X110  =  55,000  foot  pounds. 
This  has  to  be  done  in  10  seconds,  so  we  divide  the  55,000  by  10. 

55,000 
This  gives  the  rate,  or  — — —  =  5,500  Foot  Pounds  Per  Second. 

48.  One  Horsepower  is  required  when  work  is  done  at  the  rate  of  550  foot  pounds  per 
second,  so  dividing  5,500  by  550  gives  the  number  of  Horsepower  required  to  do  5,500  foot 
pounds  per  second. 

5,500 

=  10  Horsepower. 

550 

Note  that  if  the  work  had  to  be  done  in  5  seconds  (half  the  time)  the  answer  would 
be  20  Horsepower  (twice  the  rate). 

49.  The  answer  can  be  arrived  at  in  a  slightly  different  way  and  it  is  very  important 
to  notice  the  difference.     For  instance,  the  Distance  divided  by  the  time  (110^-10),  or  11 
feet  per  second,  is  the  "Rate  of  Movement"  of  the  weight.    If  a  weight  of  500  pounds  moves 
at  the  rate  of  11  feet  per  second,  the  power  expended  in  moving  it  is  equal  to  500  X 11,  or  5,500 
foot  pounds  per  second. 

50.  The  result,  therefore,  may  be  written  as  follows: 
Weight  Rate  or 

force  or  Multipled  b.y  Movement  Equals  Power. 

Pressure 

51.  It  should  be  noted  here  that  instead  of  actually  using  a  weight,  we  can  get  the  same 
results  by  using  a  Pressure  or  Force.    For  example,  a  Force  or  Pressure  acting  upon  the  piston 
of  an  engine  causes  the  piston  to  move,  and  work  is  done.    The  rate  at  which  the  work  is  done 
is  a  measure  of  the  power  of  the  engine. 

54.  Rate  of  Movement.     If  a  weight  of  500  pounds  is  moved  at  the  rate  of  11  feet 
per  second,  the  power  expended  in  moving  it  is  equal  to  500X11,  or  5,500  Foot  Pounds  per 
second,  which  is  the  same  result  as  before. 

55.  It  is  very  important  to  note  the  above  result  and  the  reasoning  leading  up  to  it. 
Reference  will  be  made  to  it  again  in  dealing  with  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  Electricity. 

MECHANICAL  UNITS  AND  TERMS. 

56.  Work.     The  overcoming  of  resistance  through  a  certain  distance,  force  tunes  the 
distance  through  which  it  acts. 

Weight  times  the  distance  through  which  the  weight  falls  or  is  raised.  Energy — 
Work  in  a  stored  form.  The  ability  to  perform  work.  This  energy,  stored  in  a  tank  of  water, 
represents  the  amount  of  work  the  water  will  have  done  in  falling  a  certain  distance.  Also 
the  amount  of  work  that  would  have  to  be  done  to  put  the  water  back  into  the  tank. 

57.  Power.     The  rate  of  doing  work. 

58.  Foot.     A  unit  of  distance. 

59.  Pound.     A  unit  of  weight,  force,  or  pressure. 


14  INFORMATION 

60.  Second.     A  unit  of  time. 

61.  Foot     Pound.     A  unit  of  work.    The  lifting  of  one  pound  through  a  height  of  one 
foot.    A  Pressure  of  one  pound  exerted  through  the  space  of  one  foot. 

62.  1  Foot  Pound  Per  Second.    The  Unit  of  power.    The  lifting  of  one  pound  to  a 
height  of  one  foot  in  one  second. 

63.  Horsepower.     A  larger  unit  of  power.    Doing  work  at  the  rate  of  550  foot  pounds 
per  second. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Do  we  know  what  electricity  is?     What  is  known  of  its  action? 

2.  What  should  first  be  learned  in  studying  electricity? 

3.  What  may  be  said  of  the  relation  between  magnetism  and  electricity? 

4.  What  would  result  if  all  magnetism  should  cease  to  exist? 

5.  With  what  may  the  action  of  electricity  be  compared? 

6.  How  is  power  produced  in  a  water  system? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  generator? 

8.  The  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done  electrically  depends  on  what? 

9.  How  is  electric  pressure  and  rate  of  flow  measured? 

10.  What  determines  the  resistance  of  a  conductor? 

11.  Define  the  terms  Volt,  Ampere,  and  Ohm. 

12.  Give  Ohms  law. 

13.  Why  should  mechanical  principles  be  understood? 

14.  What  must  be  expended  before  work  can  be  done? 

15.  Why  should  the  subject  of  energy  be  carefully  studied? 

16.  Can  energy  be  created? 

17.  What  is  a  gas  engine? 

18.  What  is  electricity? 

19.  How  may  the  amount  of  energy  stored  in  a  weight  be  determined? 

21.  How  may  we  store  energy  in  a  weight? 

22.  Explain  the  term  "Foot  Pound." 

25.  The  foot  pound  is  the  unit  of  what? 

26.  When  is  work  being  done?  • 
28.   How  much  energy  must  be  expended  to  wind  a  clock? 

30.  How  much  work  must  be  done  to  raise  a  weight  of  55  pounds  to  a  height  of  10  feet? 

31.  How  may  work  be  calculated? 

32.  What  may  be  said  of  time  taken  to  do  work? 

33.  Give  a  comparison  in  rate  of  doing  work. 

37.    Give  table  for  determining  rate  of  doing  work. 

42.  What  is  the  unit  of  measurement  of  work? 

43.  Give  meaning  of  the  word  "Per." 

47.  How  many  Horsepower  would  be  required  to  raise  a  weight  of  500  pounds  to  a  height  of 
110  feet  in  10  seconds? 

56.  Explain  the  term  "Work";  "Energy." 

57.  Define  the  term  "Power." 

58.  Define  the  term  "Foot." 

59.  Define  the  term  "Pound." 

60.  Define  the  term  "Second." 

61.  Define  the  term  "Foot  Pound." 
63.  Define  the  term  "Horsepower." 


15 

ELECTRICAL  PRINCIPLES 

64.  When  we  consider  electricity  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  we  are  not  concerned 
with  the  nature  of  electricity,  but  rather  with  the  laws  which  govern  its  action.    Electricity, 
of  course,  is  invisible,  yet  we  can  study  its  effects  just  as  well  as  if  it  could  be  seen.    We  must, 
of  course,  assume  certain  things  about  electricity,  but  as  long  as  nothing  comes  along  to  prove 
our  assumptions  to  be  wrong,  we  may  continue  to  use  them  in  explaining  the  action  of  elec- 
tricity. 

65.  It  is  also  useful  to  compare  the  action  of  electricity  with  the  action  of  water,  with 
which  everybody  is  more  or  less  familiar.    Let  us  assume,  first,  that  electricity  is  something 
that  flows  or  moves.    We  can  then  say  that  if  it  flows  it  must  have  a  rate  of  movement  (or 
flow).     (Electricity  is  usually  spoken  cf  as  flowing  in  a  circuit.) 

66.  Comparing  this  with  water,  note  that  we  usually  measure  the  flow  of  water  by 
noting  how  much  water  flows  in  a  given  tune.    For  example,  if  10  gallons  flow  past  a  certain 
point  in  one  minute,  we  say  the  water  is  flowing  at  the  rate  of  10  gallons  per  minute. 

67.  Rate  of  Flow.     We  measure  the  rate  of  flow  of  electricity  also  by  taking  the 
quantity  that  flows  in  a  given  time.    Instead  of  using  the  quantity  unit  and  the  time  unit  to 
express  the  rate  of  flow  as  in  the  case  of  water,  we  take  one  word  to  include  both.    We  use  a 
new  name  for  it  and  say  the  rate  is  measured  in  amperes.     Note  that  we  never  say  "one 
ampere  per  second"  or  "one  ampere  per  minute,"  etc.    The  rate  of  movement  of  flow  of 
electricity  is  measured  in  amperes. 

68.  Pressure.     Before  anything  can  move,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  force  or  pres- 
sure applied  to  it.    This  holds  true  with  regard  to  all  material  or  physical  bodies  and  we  can 
assume  that  it  applies  to  electricity  also. 

69.  We  measure  the  pressure  of  water  or  steam  by  pressure  gauge  which  is  made  to 
show  pounds  per  square  inch. 

70.  An  electrical  pressure  gauge  is  called  a  Voltmeter,  and  is  marked  to  show  volts. 

71.  The  word  "volt"  need  be  no  more  mysterious  than  the  words  "pound"  cr  "inch." 
We  measure  weight  in  pounds  and  distance  in  inches,  yet  very  few  people  could  ever  say  why 
we  use  "pounds"  and  "inch."    All  we  have  to  remember  is  that  whenever  "volts"  are  men- 
tioned it  means  the  measurement  of  the  electrical  pressure. 

72.  Electricity  is  a  means  of  transmitting  energy.    By  this  we  mean  that  work  can  be 
done  by  the  use  of  electricity,  and  the  way  in  which  this  is  brought  about  is  not  very  hard  to 
understand. 

73.  Laying  electricity  aside  for  the  present,  let  us  consider  water  with  which  we  are 
more  familiar.    If  we  connect  a  pipe  to  a  water  motor  and  then  turn  on  the  water,  the  motor 
will  operate  and  deliver  energy.     The  energy  does  not  come  from  the  pump  but  from  the 
water,  and  to  follow  this  line  of  thought  further,  we  find  that  the  energy  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  water  is  in  motion. 

74.  Going  still  further,  we  would  ask,  What  gives  the  water  its  motion?    Where  does  the 
energy  come  from?     Water  will  not  move  unless  there  is  a  force  making  it  move.     Where 
does  this  force  come  from? 

75.  There  are  two  ways  in  which  this  force  can  be  procured,  or  to  say  the  same  thing 
correctly,  there  are  two  ways  of  imparting  or  giving  Energy  to  water. 

76.  First,  by  allowing  the  water  to  fall  from  a  high  level  to  a  lower,  level.    When  the 
water  has  reached  the  lowest  level  it  gives  up  its  energy  either  in  doing  useful  work,  as  in  the 
case  where  we  make  it  flow  through  a  water  motor,  or  the  Energy  is  simply  wasted,  as  in  the 
case  where  the  water  strikes  the  ground  and  forms  a  pool. 

77.  Why  do  we  continue  to  have  plenty  of  water  flowing  in  our  rivers  and  over  the 
natural  water-falls?    There  is  only  one  answer.    The  sun  is  the  agent  that  raises  the  water 
again  and  in  doing  so  gives  to  it  what  we  call  Energy  or  the  capacity  for  doing  work.    It  should 
be  noted  at  this  point  that  the  water  has  moved  in  a  complete  circle  or  circuit,  as  follows: 


16  INFORMATION 

78.  Starting  from  a  low  level — represented  by  the  sea  or  a  lake — it  is  evaporated  by 
the  heat  from  the  Sun  and  -raised  up  in  the  air.     It  becomes  condensed  and  forms  clouds, 
when  it  falls  back  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow.    The  rain  or  snow  that  falls  on 
the  high  levels — the  mountains — forms  small  streams.    These  run  together  and  become  rivers, 
gradually  descending  to  the  lower  levels.     . 

79.  When  the  water  takes  a  sudden  drop  as  in  the  case  of  a  waterfall,  it  gives  up  the 
Energy  it  possesses,  due  to  the  difference  in  height  between  the  top  of  the  waterfall  and  the 
bottom.    After  some  of  this  Energy  has  been  used  in  doing  useful  work  as  previously  described, 
the  water  returns  again  to  the  starting  point  and  the  circle  or  circuit  is  completed. 

80.  The  second  way  of  imparting  or  giving  energy  to  the  water  is  by  the  use  of  a  pump. 
This  enables  us  to  raise  the  water  up  to  a  high  level  again  and  "store  up"  Energy.    When  we 
allow  the  water  to  fall,  it  gives  up  the  energy  that  was  stored  up.    It  is  not  necessary,  however, 
to  actually  lift  the  water  each  time  and  allow  it  to  fall. 

81.  Instead  we  can  take  the  water  as  it  leaves  the  pump,  when  it  will  be  under  a  certain 
pressure,  and  lead  it  directly  to  the  water  motor.    We  would  then  get  just  as  much  energy 
from  the  water  as  we  would  if  we  lifted  it  up  to  a  corresponding  high  level  and  let  it  fall  again. 

82.  The  question  might  be  asked  here,  Where  do  \ve  get  the  energy  that  enables  the 
pump  to  raise  the  Water?    This  may  be  in  various  forms,  such  as  animal  power,  steam  engine, 
Gas  or  Gasoline  Engine,  Electric  Motor,  etc.    All  of  these  things  are  simply  energy  trans- 
formers. 

83.  That  is,  they  change  energy  from  one  form  into  another.    They  receive  energy  in 
one  form  and  give  it  up  again  in  another.     The  gasoline  engine  must  have  gasoline,  and  the 
electric  motor  must  have  electricity.    Animals,  too,  must  be  fed  if  they  are  to  be  kept  alive 
and  able  to  perform  work. 

84.  Following  up  the  Gasoline  Engine  as  a  means  of  operating  the  pump,  we  have 
traced  the  source  of  energy  back  to  fuel.     Where  does  the  fuel  get  its  Energy?    Again  we 
find  that  we  are  indebted  to  the  Sun.    During  the  long  period,  ages  ago,  when  the  earth  was 
being  formed,  the  sun  was  storing  up  energy  in  various  forms.    One  of  these  is  the  crude  oil 
from  which  we  obtain  Gasoline,  Kerosene,  etc. 

85.  The  conclusion  we  arrive  at,  therefore,  is  that  Energy  is  already  provided  for  our 
use.    We  cannot  create  energy  ourselves  in  any  shape  or  form.    As  long  as  the  supply  lasts, 
we  can  use  it  in  a  large  variety  of  ways.    Another  thing  to  remember  is  that  a  certain  amount 
of  energy  is  lost  whenever  it  is  changed  from  one  form  to  another. 

86.  Turning  now  to  the  subject  of  Electricity,  it  has  been  shown  that  water  in  itself 
does  not  possess  any  Energy.    It  is  only  a  means  by  which  energy  can  be  transmitted  from 
one  place  to  another,  and  we  must  impart  motion  to  the  water  before  it  will  transmit  energy. 

87.  Electricity  is  also  a  means  or  medium  by  which  energy  can  be  transmitted.    It  does 
not  possess  any  energy  of  its  own,  and  it  must  be  in  Motion  before  any  energy  can  be  derived 
from  it.    Although  electricity  is  invisible,  yet  we  can  understand  its  action  very  readily  if  we 
regard  it  as  a  fluid;  that  is,  something  that  flows. 

88.  Water  will  flow  only  when  there  is  a  pressure  of  Head,  as  it  is  often  called,  to  cause 
it  to  flow.    In  the  case  of  water  delivered  from  a  force  pump,  the  pressure  is  obtained  from  the 
moving  plunger.    In  the  case  of  water  from  an  open  tank,  we  can  only  put  the  water  in  motion 
by  having  the  tank  at  a  high  level  and  allowing  the  water  to  flow,  due  to  gravity,  to  a  lower 
level. 

89.  We  do  not  manufacture  electricity  any  more  than  we  do  the  water  or  the  air  we 
use.    We  might  say  that  electricity  exists  everywhere,  but  it  is  not  in  motion;  therefore,  we 
are  not  aware  of  its  presence.     We  might  compare  it  with  the  air  in  this  way. 

90.  When  it  is  not  in  motion  we  call  it  air  and  are  hardly  aware  of  its  presence;  when 
it  is  in  motion  we  call  it  wind,  and  it  can  be  made  to  perform  work  by  operating  a  windmill. 

91.  By  means  of  an  electric  generator  (which  is  more  fully  described  later)  we  can 
generate  or  collect  some  of  the  electricity  and  put  it  in  Motion. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY 


17 


92.  The  Electric   Generator   (as  we  will  call  it  in  the  future)  does  the  same  thing  to 
electricity  that  the  water  pump  does  to  the  water.    It  collects  electricity  and  forces  it  through 
the  wires  or  conductors.    Its  effects  can  then  be  studied,  and  by  means  of  suitable  devices — 
lamps,  electric  motors,  electric  heaters,  etc. — we  can  make  use  of  the  electricity  in  Motion. 

93.  When  electricity  has  been  used  in  operating  one  of  these  devices,  we  have  simply 
used  it  as  a  means  of  transmitting  Energy  from  one  place  to  another.    The  Energy  is  used 
up  in  operating  the  lamp,  motor,  or  other  devices.    The  electricity  loses  its  motion,  and  there- 
fore has  no  more  power  or  ability  to  do  any  further  work. 

94.  A  closed  path  or  Circuit  is  necessary  before  electricity  can  flow.    That  is,  it  must 
return  to  the  starting  point.    Fig.  1,  page  17,  shows  a  water  system  in  which  "A"  is  a  rotating 
pump  and  "C"  and  "D"  the  pipes,  and  "B"  is  a  water  motor.    This  whole  system  is  filled  with 
water.    When  the  pump  "A"  is  caused  to  rotate  water  will  be  forced  through  the  pipe  "C" 
through  the  water  motor  "B",  causing  it  to  rotate  and  return  through  the  pipe  "D."    This 
completes  the  water  circuit.     By  means  of  the  water  in  motion,  energy  is  transmitted  from 
the  pump  to  the  motor;  where  it  can  be  converted  into  useful  work  in  a  number  of  (mechan- 
ical) ways. 

95.  Fig.  2,  page  17,  illustrates  an  electric  system  in  which  "A"  is  an  electric  generator, 
"C"  and  "D"  the  wires,  and  "B"  an  electric  motor.    When  the  generator  is  caused  to  rotate 
it  forces  a  current  of  electricity  through  the  wire  "C,"  through  the  motor  "B,"  returning  to 
the  generator  through  the  wire  "D."    This  completes  the  "electrical"  circuit. 


Fi*.  j 


fie.  2 


96.  By  means  of  the  electricity  in  motion,  energy  is  transmitted  from  the  generator  to 
the  motor,  where  it  can  be  converted  into  useful  work  in  a  number  of  (mechanical)  ways. 
The  wire  "C"  is  called  the  positive  side  of  the  circuit,  often  indicated  by  the  sign  "+".    The 
wire  "D"  is  called  the  negative  side  of  the  circuit,  often  indicated  by  the  sign  " — ". 

97.  The  terms  positive  (+)   and  negative   ( — )  simply  indicate  the  direction.     The 
terminal  on  a  generator  from  which  current  flows  is  the  Positive  Terminal.     The  terminal 
through  which  the  current  returns  to  a  generator  is  the  Negative  Terminal. 

98.  The  terminal  on  a  motor  by  which  current  enters  is  the  Positive  Terminal.     The 
terminal  on  a  motor  from  which  current  leaves  is  the  Negative  Terminal.    Again,  the  part 
of  a  circuit  used  for  the  delivery  of  current  is  the  Positive  side.    The  part  used  for  the  return 
of  current  to  the  source  is  the  Negative  side. 


18 


INFORMATION 


99.  Two  things  govern  the  amount  of  power  which  can  be  transmitted  by  the  water 
system  of  Fig.  1.    First,  the  pressure  with  which  the  water  is  forced  through  the  pipes,  and 
second,  the  size  of  the  nozzle  at  the  motor. 

100.  The  size  of  the  nozzle  governs  nothing  more  than  the  amount  of  water  which 
will  flow  through  this  hole  in  a  given  time;  the  smaller  the  hole,  the  less  would  be  the  amount 
of  water  which  would  flow  through.    In  other  words,  the  two  things  which  govern  the  amount 
of  power  transmitted  by  this  water  system  are,  first,  the  pressure,  and  second,  the  rate  of  flow. 

101.  This  principle  is  used  in  figuring  the  amount  of  power  which  can  be  obtained  from 
the  water-fall.    If  the  water-fall  ie  not  very  high,  a  large  quantity  of  water  would  be  required 
to  furnish  a  given  amount  of  power;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fall  is  extremely  high,  the  same 
amount  of  power  could  be  obtained  from  a  small  amount  of  power,  if  the  pressure  is  increased, 
then  the  amount  of  water  flowing  must  be  decreased  and  vice  versa. 

102.  To  make  the  above  clear,  Fig.  3,  page  18,  in  which  "A"  represents  a  pump  and 
"B"  a  motor.    At  "G"  is  shown  what  might  be  called  a  pressure  meter,  which  is  connected  to 
"C"  and  "D."    The  meter  consists  of  a  cylinder  with  a  piston;  behind  the  piston  is  a  spring. 
When  the  pump  is  standing  still,  the  pointer  of  the  meter  would  stand  at  zero.    If  the  pump 
is  turned,  it  Will  cause  the  pressure  in  the  pipe  "C"  to  rise. 


Fie-  3  . 


103.  This  would  press  down  the  piston  of  the  meter  "G"  and  move  the  hand  over  the 
dial,  thus  indicating  the  difference  in  pressure  between  the  two  pipes.     This  pressure  does 
not  indicate  the  amount  of  power,  as  the  valve  at  "E"  may  close.    If  the  valve  is  opened  and 
the  water  is  allowed  to  flow  through,  the  motor  will  turn.    At  "F"  is  placed  a  meter  like  the 
ordinary  house  meter,  and  measures  the  amount  of  water  which  flows  through  the  pipe. 

104.  In  this  way  the  amount  of  power  which  is  transmitted  by  this  system  can  be 
determined.    Both  the  pressure  and  the  amount  of  water  flowing  must  be  known.    Suppose 
the  water  motor  is  used  to  drive  a  small  fan  and  it  requires  a  pressure  of  10  pounds,  as  indi- 
cated on  the  meter  "G,"  and  a  gallon  of  water  per  second  flowing  through  the  meter  "F." 

106.  Now  if  the  pressure  can  be  raised  to  20  pounds,  a  smaller  nozzle  can  be  used  on 
the  water  motor;  in  this  case  the  pressure  has  been  doubled  and  therefore  the  quantity  of 
water  which  is  needed  to  run  the  motor  would  be  only  one  half  as  much.  The  meter  "F" 
would  show  only  one  half  the  number  of  gallons  per  minute.  If,  however,  the  pressure  was 
reduced  to  five  pounds,  the  amount  of  water  flowing  through  the  motor  would  have  to  be 
increased  to  double  that  which  is  required  for  10  pounds  pressure. 

106.     In  Fig.  4,  page  19,  is  given  an  illustration  of  an  electrical  system  of  transmitting 


ELEMENTARY   ELECTRICITY  19 

power.    This  system  consists  of  a  generator,  a  motor,  and  two  meters,  the  functions  of  which 
will  be  explained  later. 

107.  At  "G"  is  a  meter  corresponding  to  the  pressure  gauge  in  the  water  system.    If 
the  circuit  at  "E"  was  open,  and  the  generator  turned,  their  pressure  meter  would  show  tke 
difference  in  the  electrical  pressure  between  the  two  wires. 

108.  The  motor  will  not  run,  however,  until  the  switch  is  closed,  but  just  as  soon  as 
this  is  done,  the  current  will  begin  to  flow  and  thus  operate  the  motor.    In  our  water  system 
the  rate  of  flow  is  measured  with  a  meter  at  "F."    In  the  electrical  system  (Fig.  4)  the  rate 
at  which  the  current  is  flowing  is  measured  by  a  similar  electric  meter  at  "F." 


109.  Pressure  multiplied  by  rate  of  movement  equals  Power.     In  dealing  with  elec- 
tricity the  same  thing  is  true.    Electrical  pressure  is  measured  in  Volts,  and  the  rate  of  move- 
ment of  the  current  in  Amperes.    Volts  multiplied  by  Amperes,  therefore,  gives  the  Power. 

110.  An  example  will  help  to  make  this  clear.     If  current  flows  at  the  rate  of  one 
Ampere,  and  the  pressure  causing  it  to  flow  is  one  volt,  Power  is  being  delivered  at  a  definite 
rate. 

111.  Power  is  measured  then  by  the  Rate  at  which  it  is  being  delivered  or  used.    When 
current  flows  at  the  rate  of  1  Ampere  with  a  pressure  of  one  Volt,  power  is  being  delivered  at 
the  rate  of  1  Watt.    The  Watt  is  nothing  more  than  a  measurement  of  the  Rate  at  which 
Power  is  used  or  produced. 

112.  To  measure  the  power  produced  or  used,  take  the  rate  of  flow  in  Amperes  and 
multiply  this  by  the  pressure  in  Volts.    10  Amperes  flowing  in  a  circuit  where  the  pressure  is 
32  Volts  means  that  Power  is  being  delivered  at  the  rate  of  320  Watts. 

(10X32  =  320  Watts.) 

113.  When  1000  Watts  are  being  delivered,  the  word  "Kilowatt"  is  used.     (Kilo  is 
a  Greek  word  meaning  a  thousand.)     (1000  Watts  =  1  Kilowatt  or  1  K.  W.) 

114.  The  relationship  between  the  mechanical  measurement  of  power  and  the  electrical 
measurement  of  power  must  be  remembered,  namely: 

746  Watts  equal  one  Horse  Power. 
This  can  also  be  stated: 
1  K.  W.  equals  l|?  H.  P. 
or  1  H.  P.  equals  "K  K.  W. 


20  INFORMATION 

VOLTAGE  DROP 

116.  When  electricity  flows  through  a  wire  (or  conductor),  the  wire  offers  some  resist- 
ance to  the  current.  This  means  that  some  of  the  pressure  or  Voltage  is  used  up  in  overcoming 
the  resistance  of  the  wire.  The  amount  of  voltage  lost  in  this  way,  or  the  difference  between 
the  voltage  at  the  source  of  supply  and  the  voltage  at  the  point  where  current  is  used,  is 
known  as  Voltage  Drop. 

116.  Where  water  is  flowing  through  a  pipe  to  a  distant  point,  the  pressure  is  loss  at 
the. point  of  delivery  than  at  the  source.     When  electricity  is  flowing  through  a  conductor 
(wire)  io&  distant  point,  the  pressure  (voltage)  is  less  at  the  point  of  delivery  than  at  the  source. 

117.  It  should  be  noted  that  in  order  to  measure  the  voltage  drop,  the  current  to  be  used 
must  be  flowing  at  the  time  when  the  voltage  is  being  measured.    If  a  voltmeter  is  used  at 
the  end  of  a  line  when  current  is  not  flowing,  the  voltage  reading  will  be  practically  the  same 
as  at  the  source. 

118.  The  amount  of  resistance  in  a  wire  depends  upon  three  things:    (1)  The  material. 
Copper  is  a  better  conductor  than  iron,  which  is  the  same  as  saying  that  the  resistance  of 
copper  is  less  than  the  resistance  of  iron. 

(2)  The  area  or  cross  section  of  the  wire.    A  large  wire  offers  less  resistance  to  the  flow 
of  electricity  than  a  small  wire. 

(3)  The  length  of  the  wire.    For  example,  100  feet  of  No.  10  wire  has  twice  tho  resistance 
of  50  feet  of  No.  10  wire. 

QUESTIONS 

64.  Can  we  see  electricity? 

65.  With  what  can  the  action  of  electricity  be  compared? 

66.  Give  a  comparison. 

67.  How  is  rate  of  flow  of  electricity  measured? 

68.  What  may  be  said  of  force  or  pressure? 

69.  How  is  water  or  steam  pressure  measured? 

70.  What  is  a  voltmeter? 

71.  Weight  is  measured  in  what?    How  is  electric  pressure  measured? 

72.  Give  the  use  of  electricity. 

73.  Explain  how  power  is  produced  by  a  water  system. 

77.  Why  do  we  continue  to  have  water  flowing  in  the  rivers? 

80.  How  can  energy  be  given  to  water? 

82.  Where  do  we  get  the  energy  used  to  operate  a  pump  and  raise  water? 

83.  How  long  will  a  gasoline  engine  run? 

84.  Where  does  the  fuel  get  its  energy? 

85.  Can  we  create  energy? 

86.  Does  water  possess  energy? 

87.  Does  electricity  possess  energy  of  its  own? 

89.  Do  we  manufacture  electricity? 

90.  Is  there  any  difference  between  air  and  wind?     Explain  this. 

91.  How  can  we  collect  electricity? 

92.  Name  some  devices  operated  by  the  use  of  electricity? 

94.  How  is  energy  transmitted  from  the  water  pump  to  the  water  motor? 

95.  How  is  energy  transmitted  from  the  electric  generator  to  the  electric  motor? 
97.    What  do  the  terms  "positive"  and  "negative"  indicate? 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  21 

99.  What  governs  the  amount  of  power  which  can  be  transmitted  by  a  water  system? 

102.  To  what  is  the  pressure  meter  connected?     What  is  it  for? 

104.  Why  must  the  pressure  and  rate  of  flow  be  known? 

105.  Name  the  instruments  used  to  measure  water  pressure  and  rate  of  flow. 

106.  Name  the  instruments  used  to  measure  electric  pressure  and  rate  of  flow. 

107.  Volts  multiplied  by  Amperes  equals  what? 
111.  Define  the  term  "Watt." 

113.  Define  the  term  "Kilowatt." 

114.  Give  relationship  between  mechanical  measurements  of  power  and  electrical  measure 

ments  of  power. 
118.    What  determines  the  resistance  of  a  conductor? 


WIRE  SIZES  AND  DROP 

1.  A  conductor  offers  a  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current,  and  when  current  flows  through 
the  conductor  a  certain  amount  of  pressure  is  lost  in  overcoming  this  resistance. 

2.  The  greater  the  distance  current  flows  through  a  conductor  the  greater  the  loss  of 
prassure.    This  is  known  as  volts  drop.    See  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  page  24. 

3.  If  we  have  a  boiler  with  the  gauge  showing  100  pounds  pressure  and  an  engine  200 
feet  away  that  is  to  be  operated  by  this  steam,  the  pressure  of  the  steam  at  the  engine  end  of 
the  pipe  will  be  less  than  100  pounds. 

4.  The  farther  away  we  take  the  engine  from  the  boiler,  the  greater  the  loss  of  pressure 
to  the  engine,  or  the  greater  the  pressure  drop. 

5.  The  resistance  of  a  piece  of  wire  depends  upon  three  things:  First,  the  kind  of  metal 
in  the  wire.    Copper  offers  less  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current  than  iron.    Second,  the  area 
or  size  of  the  wire. 

6.  The  larger  the  wire  the  less  the  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current.    Third,  the  length 
of  the  wire.    The  longer  the  wire  the  greater  the  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  current. 

7.  The  size  of  a  wire  to  use  in  a  circuit  depends  upon  the  amount  of  current  that  must 
flow  and  the  length  of  the  wire. 

8.  If  two  number  10  wires  made  of  copper  are  run  for  a  distance  of  1,000  feet,  and  a 
lamp  that  consumes  one-half  ampere  of  current  is  connected  across  the  ends  of  the  wires, 
there  will  be  a  drop  in  pressure  in  carrying  the  current  this  distance. 

9.  If  the  pressure  of  the  source  is  110  volts,  the  pressure  of  the  current  at  the  lamp 
will  be  109  volts.    This  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  current  is  one  ohm  per  1,000  feet 
when  number  10  wire  is  used. 

10.  The  two  thousand  feet  of  number  10  wire  used  in  this  case  offers  2  ohms  of  resist- 
ance.    (To  find  voltage  drop,  multiply  ohms  resistance  by  Amperes  flowing.)    Then  2  ohms 
resistance  times  one-half  ampere  is  equal  to  one  volt  drop. 

11.  If  ten  of  the  same  sized  lamps  are  connected  across  the  end  of  these  wires  in  the 
place  of  the  one  lamp,  the  drop  in  pressure  will  be  much  greater.    The  10  lamps  will  consume 
5  amperes  of  current.    Then  2  ohms  times  5  amperes  equals  10  volts  drop. 

12.  This  means  that  the  pressure  across  the  lamps  will  be  only  100  volts,  and  the  lamps 
will  burn  dim,  due  to  the  great  drop  in  pressure.    In  this  case  the  pressure  drop  is  about  9%. 

13.  A  conductor  must  be  large  enough  to  carry  the  desired  amount  of  current  to  a 
certain  point  with  less  than  5%  drop. 

14.  In  the  cranking  circuit  the  drop  should  be  held  to  not  over  2%, 


22  INFORMATION 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  results  when  current  flows  through  a  conductor? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  "Volt  Drop"? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  drop  in  steam  pressure? 

5.  Upon  what  does  the  resistance  of  a  wire  depend? 

7.  Upon  what  does  the  size  of  a  wire  depend? 

9.  What  is  the  resistance  of  1,000  feet  of  No.  10  copper  wire? 

10.  How  is  voltage  drop  determined? 

11.  What  regulates  the  drop  in  voltage? 

12.  Why  will  the  lamps  burn  dim? 

13.  How  much  drop  is  allowed? 

14.  How  much  drop  is  allowable  in  a  cranking  circuit? 

OHMS  LAW 

Volts  divided  by  Amperes  equals  Ohms. 
Volts  divided  by  Ohms  equals  Amperes. 
Amperes  multiplied  by  Ohms  equals  Volts. 

WATT  LAW 

Watts  divided  by  Amperes  equal  Volts. 
Watts  divided  by  Volts  equals  Amperes. 
Volts  multiplied  by  Amperes  equals  Watts. 

EXAMPLES 

Q.  If  current  under  110  volts  pressure  flows  through  a  circuit  at  a  10- Ampere  rate, 
what  is  the  resistance  of  the  circuit?  A.  110  (Volts)  divided  by  10  (Amperes)  equals  11  Ohms 
resistance. 

Q.  If  current  under  32  Volts  pressure  flows  through  a  circuit  at  a  4-Ampere  rate,  what 
is  the  resistance  of  the  circuit?  A.  32  (Volts)  divided  by  4  (Amperes)  equals  8  Ohms  resistance. 

Q.  The  resistance  of  a  circuit  is  24  Ohms  and  the  pressure  upon  the  current  flowing  is 
32  Volts.  What  is  the  rate  of  flow  of  current  in  Amperes?  A.  32  (Volts)  divided  by  24  (Ohms) 
equals  IK  Amperes. 

Q.  The  resistance  of  a  circuit  is  55  Ohms  and  current  flows  at  a  2-Ampere  rate.  What 
is  the  pressure  upon  the  current  in  volts?  A.  2  (Amperes)  multiplied  by  55  (Ohms)  equals 
110  Volts. 

Q.  The  resistance  of  a  circuit  is  16  Ohms  and  current  flows  at  a  2-Ampere  rate.  What 
is  the  pressure  upon  the  current  in  Volts?  A.  2  (Amperes)  multiplied  by  16  (Ohms)  equals 
32  Volts. 

Q.  If  current  under  100  Volts  pressure  is  being  consumed  at  the  rate  of  1100  Watts 
per  hour,  what  is  the  rate  of  flow  in  Amperes?  A.  1100  (Watts)  divided  by  110  (Volts)  equals 
10  Amperes. 

Q.  If  current  under  32  Volts  pressure  is  being  consumed  at  the  rate  of  352  Watts  per 
hour,  what  is  the  rate  of  flow  in  Amperes?  A.  352  (Watts)  divided  by  32  (Volts)  equals  11 
Amperes. 

Q.  Current  under  110  Volts  pressure  is  flowing  through  a  circuit  at  a  5- Ampere  rate. 
How  many  Watts  will  be  consumed  in  4  hours?  A.  110  (Volts)  multiplied  by  5  (Amperes) 
equals  550  Watts  per  hour.  550  (Watts)  multiplied  by  4  (hours)  equals  2200  Watts. 

Q.  Current  under  32  Volts  pressure  is  flowing  through  a  circuit  at  a  7- Ampere  rate. 
How  many  Watts  will  be  consumed  in  4  hours?  A.  32  (Volts)  multiplied  by  7  (Amperes) 
equals  224  Watts  per  hour.  224  (Watts)  multiplied  by  four  (hours)  equals  896  Watts. 


ELE-MENTARY    ELECTRICITY  23 

Q.  •  Current  flowing  through  a  circuit  at  a  5-Ampere  rate  is  being  consumed  at  the  rate 
of  550  Watts  per  hour.  What  is  the  pressure  in  volts?  A.  550  (Watts)  divided  by  5  (Amperes) 
equals  110  Volts. 

Q.  Current  is  flowing  through  a  circuit  at  a  9-Ampere  rate,  and  is  being  consumed  at 
the  rate  of  288  Watts  per  hour.  What  is  the  pressure  in  Volts?  A.  288  (Watts)  divided  by 

9  (Amperes)  equals  32  Volts. 

Q.  If  a  110-Volt  motor  consumes  current  at  an  8- Ampere  rate,  how  many  Watts  will 
be  consumed  in  5  hours?  A.  110  (Volts)  multiplied  by  8  (Amperes)  equals  880  Watts  per 
hour.  880  (Watts)  multiplied  by  5  (Hours)  equals  4400  Watts. 

Q.  If  a  110-Volt  motor  consumes  current  at  a  10-Ampere  rate,  how  many  Kilowatts 
will  be  consumed  in  10  hours?  A.  110  (Volts)  multiplied  by  10  (Amperes)  equals  1100  Watts 
per  hour.  1100  (Watts)  multiplied  by  10  (Hours)  equals  11,000  Watts.  11,000  (Watts) 
divided  by  1000  (1000  Watts  equal  one  Kilowatt)  equals  11  Kilowatts. 

Q.  If  a  32- Volt  motor  consumes  current  at  a  10-Ampere  rate,  and  current  costs  3  cents 
per  Kilowatt,  what  will  it  cost  to  operate  it  for  100  hours?  A.  32  (Volts)  multiplied  by  10 
(Amperes)  equals  320  Watts  per  hour.  320  (Watts)  multiplied  by  100  (Hours)  equals  32,000 
Watts.  32,000  divided  by  1000  equals  32  Kilowatts.  32  Kilowatts  at  3  cents  per  Kilowatt 
equals  96  cents. 

Q.  If  twelve  32- Volt  lamps  consume  current  at  a  24-Ampere  rate,  what  is  the  average 
Wattage  per  lamp?  A.  24  (Amperes)  divided  by  12  (Lamps)  equals  2  Amperes  per  lamp. 
2  (Amperes)  multiplied  by  32  (Volts)  equals  64  Watts  per  lamp. 

Q.  What  will  it  cost  to  burn  five  50- Watt  lamps  three  hours  per  night  for  30  nights  if 
current  costs  9  cents  per  Kilowatt?  A.  5  (Lamps)  multiplied  by  50  (Watts  per  lamp)  equals 
250  Watts  per  hour.  250  (Watts)  multiplied  by  3  (Hours  per  night)  equals  750  Watts  per 
night.  750  (Watts)  multiplied  by  30  (Nights)  equals  22,500  Watts.  22,500  divided  by  1000 
equals  22^  Kilowatts.  22^  multiplied  by  9  equals  $2.025. 

Q.  If  it  costs  one  dollar  to  burn  four  50- Watt  lamps  for  100  hours,  what  is  the  cost  per 
Kilowatt?  A.  4  multiplied  by  50  (Wattage  per  lamp)  equals  200  Watts  per  hour.  200  (Watts) 
multiplied  by  100  (Hours)  equals  20,000  Watts.  20,000  (Watts)  divided  by  1000  equals  20 
Kilowatts.  SI. 00  divided  by  20  (Kilowatts)  equals"  5  cents  per  Kilowatt.  ' 

Q.  If  a  gas  engine  driving  a  32- Volt,  20-Ampere  generator  will  run  five  hours  on  a  gallon 
of  kerosene  which  costs  10  cents  per  gallon,  what  is  the  cost  of  current  per  Kilowatt?  A.  32 
(Volts)  multiplied  by  20  (Amperes)  equals  640  Watts  output  per  hour.  640  (Watts)  multi- 
plied by  5  (Hours)  equals  3,200  Watts.  3,200  (Watts)  divided  by  1000  equals  3.2  Kilowatts. 

10  (Cents)  divided  by  3.2  (Kilowatts)  equals  3.1c+. 

VOLTAGE    DROP 

Ohms  multiplied  by  Amperes  equals  Volts  drop. 
Volts  drop  divided  by  Ohms  equals  Amperes. 
Volts  drop  divided  by  Amperes  equals  Ohms. 

Q.  If  a  32-Volt  generator  is  delivering  current  to  a  motor  that  consumes  2  Amperes 
and  the  Voltage  at  the  motor  terminals  is  30  Volts,  what  is  the  resistance  of  the  conductors 
(wires)  between  the  generator  and  the  motor?  A.  32  (Volts)  less  30  (Volts)  equals  2  Volts 
drop.  2  (Volts  drop)  divided  by  2  (Amperes)  equals  1  Ohm  resistance. 

Q.     The  resistance  of  a  circuit  (wires)  between  a  32-Volt  generator  and  a  32-Volt  motor- 
is  .2  Ohm  and  the  Voltage  at  the  motor  terminals  is  30  Volts.    What  is  the  rate  of  flow  of 
current  in  Amperes?    A.  32  (Volts)  less  30  (Volts)  equals  2  Volts  drop.    2  (Volts  drop)  divided 
by  .2  (Ohm)  equals  10  Amperes. 

Q.  A  32-Volt  generator  is  delivering  current  to  a  motor  which  is  consuming  4  Amperes 
and  the  resistance  of  the  conductors  between  the  generator  and  the  motor  is  .5  Ohm.  What 
is  the  Voltage  drop  at  the  motor  terminals?  A-  .5  (Ohm)  multiplied  by  4  (Amperes)  equals 
2  Volts  drop, 


24 


INFORMATION 


VOLTAGE  DROP 


#  10  COPPER     W/  f<E  . 


HOYOLTS 


THE   DROP    IH    PftESSURE 
GErteRATOF*    AND    MOTOR     IS   DUE     TO 
THE.    /?ESI5TANC£"  OP    THE    LOffG 

THE:  CIRCUIT. 


(poo     FT. 


10 


FIG.     / 


no 

THE    DROF» 

AND 

RFSiSTAncc   OF- 
e£Tir(c    CUT  ;//. 


.  2 


THE:    DROP  IN  Pf?essof?c 

GENE-RATOR    ANO    STO/?AG£r 

/S    DL/E     TO     THE"    WES/STANCC"     OF 

i-AMPS      IN    THE"     CIRCUIT. 


no  vot_T«> 


STO  RA>GE. 
BATTETKY 


© 


FJG.    -f- 


7 

YOL.TS 


ELEMENTARY   ELECTRICITY  25 

Q.  Two  Electric  fans  consuming  2  Amperes  each  and  4  twenty-five  Watts  lamps  are 
being  operated  from  a  32- Volt  battery.  In  how  many  hours  will  they  consume  one  Kilowatt? 
A.  2  (Amperes)  multiplied  by  32  (Volts)  equals  64  Watts  per  hour  for  each  fan.  64  (Watts) 
multiplied  by  2  (Fans)  equals  128  Watts  per  hour  consumed  by  the  two  fans.  4  multiplied 
by  25  (Wattage  of  each  lamp)  equals  100  Watts  per  hour  consumed  by  the  four  lamps.  128 
Watts  (current  consumed  by  fans  each  hour)  plus  100  Watts  (current  consumed  by  lights 
each  hour)  equals  228  Watts  per  hour.  1000  (1000  Watts  equals  one  Kilowatt)  divided  by 
228  (Watts  consumed  per  hour)  equals  4.39  hours  +. 

Q.  If  a  32- Volt  generator  is  generating  current  at  a  20-Ampere  rate  and  a  motor,  con- 
suming 5  Amperes  and  four  40- Watt  lamps  are  being  operated,  at  what  rate  is  the  battery 
being  charged?  A.  4  (Lamps)  multiplied  by  40  (Watts  per  lamp)  equals  160  Watts  per  hour 
consumed  by  the  four  lamps.  160  (Watts)  divided  by  32  (Voltage  of  the  generator)  equals 
5  Amperes.  5  Amperes  (current  consumed  by  the  motor)  plus  5  Amperes  (current  being 
consumed  by  the  lights)  equals  10  Amperes  being  consumed  by  the  motor  and-  lights.  20 
Amperes  (output  of  the  generator),  less  10  Amperes  (current  being  consumed)  equals  10 
Amperes,  which  is  the  charging  rate. 

MAGNETISM 

1.  To  understand  the  principles  of  magnetism,  we  must  first  learn  its  action  and  the 
natural  laws  under  which  it  takes  place.    It  is  invisible,  like  electricity,  easy  to  use  and  under- 
stand, and  controlled  by  a  few  simple  laws. 

2.  Iron  and  steel  is  said  to  be  composed  of  molecules  (little  magnets)  which  lie  in  the 
metal  in  confused  positions.    If  an  insulated  wire  is-wound  around  a  bar  of  iron  or  steel  and  a 
current  of  electricity  is  passed  through  the  wire,  the  molecules  have  a  tendency  to  straighten 
out  in  the  metal  parallel  with  each  other. 

3.  For  instance:    If  only  a  small  amount  of  current  is  passed  through  the  wire,  which 
surrounds  the  core,  a  small  portion  of  the  molecules  are  affected  and  straighten  out  parallel 
with  each  other.    Increasing  the  current  flowing  through  the  wire  causes  an  increased  number 
of  molecules  to  be  affected,  until  a  point  is  reached  where  all  the  molecules  are  straightened 
out  parallel  with  each  other.    At  this  point  the  core  is  said  to  be  saturated,  and  an  increase 
in  the  flow  of  current  will  not  have  any  further  effect. 

4.  If  an  insulated  wire  is  wound  around  a  core  made  of  iron  or  steel  and  a  current  of 
electricity  is  passed  through  the  wire,  the  core  will  attract  other  pieces  of  iron  or  steel  as  long 
as  current  flows  through  the  wire. 

6.  This  power  of  attraction  is  called  magnetism.  If  the  core  of  iron  or  steel  is  very 
soft  it  will  lose  its  magnetism  and  the  molecules  will  fall  back  in  their  confused  positions  as 
soon  as  current  ceases  to  flow.  This  is  called  an  Electro-Magnet.  If  the  bar  is  of  hardened 
steel  it  will  retain  its  magnetism  after  current  ceases  to  flow  and  will  be  known  as  a  permanent 
magnet. 

6.  A  permanent  magnet,  when  placed  on  a  pivot  or  suspended  by  a  string,  will  turn 
so  that  one  end  will  point  to  the  north  and  the  other  end  to  the  south.    The  hand  of  a  compass 
is  nothing  more  than  a  piece  of  hardened  steel  that  has  been  magnetized. 

7.  The  end  that  points  to  the  north  is  called  the  north  pole,  and  the  end  that  points 
to  the  south  is  called  the  south  pole. 

8.  If  another  permanent  magnet  is  brought  close  to  a  permanent  one  that  is  suspended, 
the  following  interesting  things  will  be  observed:     When  the  north  pole  of  the  magnet  is 
brought  close  to  the  north  pole  of  the  suspended  one,  the  suspended  one  will  immediately 
rotate  away.    If  the  north  pole  of  the  magnet  is  brought  close  to  the  south  pole  of  the  sus- 
pended one,  the  suspended  one  will  rotate  toward  it. 

9.  The  simple  laws  of  magnetism  are:     A  magnet  has  two  poles.     One  is  called  the 
North  Pole  and  the  other  is  called  the  South  Pole.     The  North  Pole  points  to  th*>  North, 


26  INFORMATION 

and  the  South  Pole  points  to  the  South,  if  the  magnet  is  free  to  turn.    Also  that  like  poles 
epel  and  unlike  poles  attract. 

10.  To  show  attraction  of  unlike  poles  and  repulsion  of  like  poles,  sprinkle  iron  filings 
on  a  paper.    Bring  two  like  poles  up  close  to  the  paper  just  beneath  the  iron  filings,  keeping 
the  poles  at  least  an  inch  apart.-    See  Fig.  7,  page  27.      The  iron  filings  will  present  the  ap- 
pearance of  two  jets  of  water  being  forced  against  each  other.    If  two  unlike  poles  are  placed 
beneath  the  paper,  in  the  same  positions  as  that  of  the  like  poles,  the  iron  filings  will  form  in 
strings  or  cords  between  the  two  unlike  poles.    See  Fig.  8,  page  27. 

11.  It  is  impossible  to  insulate  from  magnetism.     Magnetism  will  always  follow  the 
path  of  least  resistance  to  complete  its  circuit.     Magnetic  lines  of  force  (often  called  flux) 
always  pass  through  the  core  from  the  south  to  the  north  pole  and  through  the  air  from  the 
north  to  the  south  pole. 

12.  The  strength  of  a  magnet  depends  upon  three  things:    The  number  of  turns  in  the 
magnetizing  coil,  strength  of  current  flowing,  and  the  quality  of  the  path  (core)  through 
which  the  magnetic  flux  passes. 

13.  Facing  the  dial  of  a  clock,  wind  an  insulated  wire  around  the  hand  spindle  in  the 
direction  the  hands  travel  and  pass  a  current  of  electricity  through  the  wire  in  the  same  direc- 
tion.   The  end  of  the  spindle  the  hands  are  on  will  be  the  south  pole  and  the  other  end  the 
north  pole. 

14.  Wire  should  always  be  wound  around  a  core  in  the  same  direction.    Then  the  polarity 
of  this  magnet  will  depend  upon  the  direction  current  is  passed  through  the  wire. 

15.  Iron  or  steel  is  a  better  conductor  of  magnetism  than  the  air,  and  lines  of  force 
exert  their  powers  in  the  direction  of  shortening  their  travel.    A  piece  of  iron  or  steel,  if  placed 
within  the  range  of  the  flux  from  a  magnet  and  left  free  to  move,  will  be  pulled  into  the  posi- 
tion which  gives  the  lines  of  force  the  shortest  path  through  it  from  the  north  to  the  south 
pole  of  the  magnet. 

16.  An  armature  is  the  moving  part'of  an  electro-magnet  (called  relays)  or  the  revolving 
part  of  a  motor  or  generator.    In  operation  it  will  always  be  drawn  into  that  position  which 
gives  the  lines  of  force  the  shortest  path  from  pole  to  pole  through  the  armature  within  the 
range  of  its  movement. 

17.  There  is  always  a  limit  to  the  magnetic  flux  that  can  be  forced  through  iron  or 
steel.     Beyond  certain  degrees  of  magnetization  called  "working  points,"  the  magnetic  re- 
sistance of  iron  or  steel  increases  so  rapidly  that  a  considerable  increase  of  magnetizing  power 
produces  only  a  small  amount  of  magnetism. 

18.  Then  the  magnets  core  is  said  to  be  nearing  saturation.    Finally  a  point  is  reached 
when  an  increase  in  magnetizing  power  produces  no  appreciable  increase  on  magnetism. 
Then  the  core  is  saturated. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  necessary  to  understand  the  principles  of  magnetism? 

2.  Name  two  good  conductors  of  magnetism. 

3.  What  results  when  current  flows  through  an  insulated  wire  which  surrounds  an  iron  core? 

4.  Will  the  core  always  lose  its  magnetism  as  soon  as  current  ceases  to  flow? 

5.  What  is  an  electro-magnet?     What  is  a  permanent  magnet? 

6.  What  is  the  hand  of  a  compass  made  of? 

7-  What  names  are  applied  to  the  poles  of  a  magnet? 

Which  poles  attract?     Which  poles  repel? 

9.  Give  the  simple  laws  of  magnetism. 

10.  Explain  how  attraction  and  repulsion  can  be  demonstrated. 

11.  Give  direction  of  flow  of  lines  of  force  through  magnetic  material  and  the  air. 

12.  Upon  what  does  the  strength  of  a  magnet  depend? 

13.  Upon  what  does  the  polarity  of  a  magnet  depend? 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY 


27 


N< 

*  - 

k   \  *-       —  — "        x 

BAR       MAGNET 
AND 

LINE'S     or     r-oRCET 
5 


HORSESHOE-    MAGNET 
AN  O 

LINES    OF" 


SJI 

*   M 

XxN^---'X'/fl 

.  7 
OF      TWO 


\  \ 


N4 

c 

^ 

O 

POLES 


N 


N 


/  /  / 


.  S 


ATTRACTfOfV     a^F      TW<? 


POLE'S 


28 

15.  What  results  if  a  piece  of  iron  or  steel  is  placed  within  the  range  of  the  flux  from  a  magnet 

and  left  free  to  move? 

16.  What  is  an  armature?     Name  two  kinds. 

17.  Is  there  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  magnetic  flux  that  can  be  forced  through  iron  or  steel? 

18.  What  is  meant  by  Saturation? 

INFORMATION 

1.  Acid.    Muriatic  acid  is  used  in  making  soldering  solution.     (See  Soldering  Solution.) 

2.  Acid.    Sulphuric  acid  is  used  in  making  electrolyte.     (See  Electrolyte.) 

3.  Active  Material.     A  composition  used  in  making  the  plates  of  a  storage  battery. 

4.  Alloy.    A  compound  of  two  or  more  metals. 

6.     Alternating  Current.    Current  that  rapidly  changes  direction  of  flow  in  a  circuit. 

6.  Ammeter.    An  instrument  used  to  indicate  the  rate  current  is  flowing. 

7.  Ampere.     The  unit  of  electric  current.     Rate  of  flow  of  current  is  measured  in 
Amperes. 

8.  Ampere  Hour.    The  quantity  of  current  passed  by  one  ampere  in  one  hour. 

9.  Ampere  Turn.    A  single  turn  or  winding  in  a  coil  of  wire  through  which  one  ampere 
passes. 

10.  Anneal.    The  process  of  softening  by  heating  and  then  slowly  cooling. 

11.  Armature.    The  revolving  part  of  a  motor  or  generator,  the  moving  part  of  a  relay. 

12.  Armature  Windings.    The  coils  of  wire  of  an  armature  that  are  connected  to  the 
commutator. 

13.  Automatic  Cut-Out.    A  device  used  to  automatically  open  a  circuit. 

14.  Batteries.     Two  kinds  in  general  use.     Dry  cells  are  used  where  a  small  amount 
of  current  is  required  at  a  time.     Storage  .batteries  are  used  where  either  a  small  or  great 
amount  of  current  is  required.    When  dry  cells  are  discharged  they  are  useless  and  discarded. 
When  storage  batteries  are  discharged,  they  may  be  charged  again  by  passing  a  current  of 
electricity  through  them. 

15.  Breaker  Box.     The  compartment  of  a  magneto  in  which  the  primary  circuit  is 
opened  and  closed.    This  compartment  contains  the  breaker  points  and  cam. 

16.  Brush.    A  device  used  to  make  contact  with  a  moving  part.    Most  commonly 
used  to  make  a  flexible  contact  to  a  commutator. 

17.  Brush  Arm.    An  arm  upon  which  a  brush  is  mounted. 

18.  Brush  Arm  Spring.    A  spring  used  to  give  tension  to  a  brush  on  a  commutator. 

19.  Circuit.     The  course  followed  by  an  electric  current  from  its  source  through  con- 
ductors back  to  the  starting  point. 

20.  Circuit  Breaker.    An  electric  device  used  to  automatically  open  a  circuit. 

21.  Circuit  Diagram.     A  drawing  used  to  show  the  internal  circuits  of  apparatus. 

22.  Closed  Circuit.    A  circuit  that  is  completed  so  current  can  flow. 

23.  Closed  Magnetic  Circuit.     A  circuit  through  which  lines  of  force  flow  through 
metal  only. 

24.  Coil.    A  single  turn  of  wire  of  an  Armature  is  called  a  coil. 

25.  Compass.     Used  to  indicate  directions.     The  needle  of  a  compass  is  made  of  a 
fine  piece  of  steel  highly  magnetized.    This  needle  will  point  north  and  south  if  not  affected  by 
other  forces.    If  an  ordinary  sewing  needle  is  magnetized  and  then  dipped  in  Oil,  it  will  float 
on  water  and  will  point  north  and  south. 

26.  Commutator.     The  part  upon  which  the  brushes  of  a  Motor  or  generator-  make 
contact. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  29 

27.  Condenser.     Made  of  sheets  of  tinfoil,  separated  from  each  other  and  connected 
across  places  in  an  electric  circuit  where  the  circuit  is  opened.    It  is  often  used  to  eliminate 
burning  of  contact  points.    In  an  ignition  system  it  is  also  used  to  assist  the  induction  coil 
in  increasing  voltage. 

28.  Conductor.    Any  substance  through  which  a  current  of  electricity  will  flow. 

29.  Contacts.     When  two  or  more  pieces  of  metal  are  used  and  the  arrangement  is 
such  that  when  they  come  together  a  circuit  is  closed,  they  are  called  contacts  or  contact 
points. 

30.  Core.     The  mass  of  iron  or  iron  wires  forming  the  interior  portion  of  an  electro- 
magnet or  induction  coil,  and  around  which  wire  is  wound.    The  part  is  caused  to  be  mag- 
netized when  current  flows  through  the  wire  that  surrounds  it. 

31.  Direct  Current.    Current  that  flows  constantly  in  the  same  direction. 

32.  Distillation.     An  operation  in  which  two  or  more  liquids  may  be  separated  by 
boiling.    Distilled  water  is  made  by  boiling  water,  catching  the  steam  that  arises  and  cooling 
it,  returning  it  to  pure  water. 

33.  Distributor.     A  mechanically  operated  device  used  to  direct  the  flow  of  current 
in  a  number  of  different  circuits.    A  distributor  used  in  connection  with  an  ignition  system 
is  usually  a  timer  and  distributor  combined.    It  is  so  arranged  that  it  times  the  flow  of  cur- 
rent in  the  primary  circuit  and  distributes  the  high-tension  current  to  the  wires  that  go  to 
the  spark  plugs.     In  many  distributors  the  same  contact  points  used  in  closing  the  primary 
circuit  acts  as  an  interrupter.     (See  Interrupters.) 

34.  Electricity.    The  name  is  given  to  an  invisible  agent  known  only  by  its  effect  and 
actions.    We  know  how  to  control  the  action  of  it  to  a  great  extent,  and  no  matter  how 
it  is  produced,  we  believe  it  to  be  one  and  the  same  thing. 

35.  Electric  Pressure.     The  pressure  upon  the  current  flowing  in  a  circuit.     This 
pressure  is  measured  in  Volts. 

36.  Electric  Resistance.     Anything  that  resists  the  flow  of  current.     Large  wires, 
low  resistance.    Small  wires,  high  resistance.    This  resistance  is  measured  in  Ohms. 

37.  Electro  Magnet.     If  an  insulated  wire  is  wound  around  an  iron  core  and  current 
is  passed  through  the  wire,  this  is  an  electro-magnet.     Sometimes  the  wire  is  wound  on  a 
spool  made  of  non-magnetic  material,  and  so  arranged  that  the  core  can  be  inserted  or  with- 
drawn as  desired.     This  form  is  known  as  a  solenoid  magnet. 

38.  Electrolyte.    The  solution  used  in  a  storage  battery.    Is  generally  made  by  mixing 
sulphuric  acid  and  distilled  water  in  proportion  of  two  parts  of  acid  and  five  parts  of  water. 
These  parts  are  measured  out  by  vplume.    An  earthen  vessel  must  be  used  and  the  solution 
stirred  while  mixing.    Never  pour  the  water  into  the  acid.    (See  Gravity.) 

39.  Energy.     The  power  of  doing  work.     Passing  a  current  of  electricity  through  a 
storage  battery  causes  energy  to  be  stored  up  in  a  chemical  form.    Then  this  energy  is  taken 
off  in  an  electric  form.    Winding  a  watch  causes  energy  to  be  stored  up  in  a  mechanical  form 
in  the  spring. 

40.  Field.    A  term  applied  to  a  space  occupied  by  electricity  or  magnetic  lines  of  force. 

41.  Flow  of  Current.    Flow  of  current  is  measured  in  Amperes.    Current  flows  under 
a  certain  number  of  volts  pressure. 

42.  Field  Coil.    The  coil  of  insulated  wire  which  surrounds  the  pole  pieces  of  a  motor 
or  generator. 

43.  Foot  Pound.    This  is  a  um't  of  work  or  energy.    The  lifting  of  one  pound  one  foot. 

44.  Generator.     A  machine  which  converts  mechanical  energy  into  electric  energy. 

45.  Gravity.     Referring  to  the  electrolyte  used  in  a  storage  battery,  the  gravity  de- 
pends upon  the  proportions  of  water  and  acid.    The  gravity  of  water  is  1.000,  and  that  of  chem- 
ically pure  sulphuric  acid  is  1.840. 

46.  Grooving  Out  Micas.     The  separators  or  insulators  between  the  segments  of  a 


30  INFORMATION 

commutator  are  made  of  mica.  In  the  wear  of  a  commutator  the  copper  will  wear  faster 
than  the  mica,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  groove  the  micas  out  so  they  will  be  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  copper.  This  is  done  with  a  file  and  hack-saw  blade.  Full  information  on  this 
subject  will  be  found  under  "Care  of  the  Motor  and  Generator." 

47.  Ground.     The  frame  of  the  car  is  known  as  ground. 

48.  Ground  Wire.    Used  to  connect  a  piece  of  apparatus  to  the  frame  of  the  car. 

49.  High  Tension.    This  term  applies  to  High  Voltage. 

60.     High  Tension  Magneto.    A  magneto  in  which  the  means  of  increasing  pressure 
(voltage)  is  incorporated  within  the  machine. 

51.  High  Tension  Wire.    Wire  with  a  very  heavy  insulation  of  rubber  or  other  good 
insulating  material. 

52.  Horsepower.     The  power  required  to  Hit  one  pound  550  feet  in  one  second. 

53.  Hydrometer.    Used  to  test  the  gravity  of  solution  in  a  storage  battery.    A  floating 
device  with  a  scale  inside  of  a  glass  tube. 

54.  Ignition  Coil.     An  induction  coil  used  in  connection  with  ignition  systems  to 
assist  in  increasing  voltage. 

55.  Induced  Current.     Interrupting   the  flow   of  current   in  the  primary  circuit  of 
an  ignition  system  causes  current  to  be  generated  into  the  secondary  winding  of  the  ignition 
coil.    This  is  called  induced  current. 

56.  Insulation.     Covering  used  on  wires  as  an  insulator.    A  material  that  is  a  non- 
conductor. 

57.  Interrupter.     A  device  used  to  interrupt  the  flow  of  current  in  the  primary  cir- 
cuit for  an  ignition  system.     This  is  necessary  in  order  that  current  be  generated  into  the 
secondary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil  or  armature.    The  armature  of  a  high  tension  magneto 
has  both  primary  and  secondary  winding  on  it.    In  some  battery  systems  a  vibrator  is  em- 
ployed as  an  interrupter,  and  in  others  a  relay  is  used.    In  some  systems,  by  a  mechanical 
means,  the  circuit  is  closed  and  opened. 

58.  Kilowatt.     1,000  Watts.     A  unit  of  electric  power.     Electric  power  is  generally 
expressed  in  Kilowatts.     The  watt  is  the  1/746  of  a  horsepower.    The  kilowatt  is  equal  to 
about  one  and  one-third  horsepower. 

59.  Lines  of  Force.     If  an  insulated  wire  is  wound  around  an  iron  core  and  current 
is  passed  through  the  wire,  it  causes  the  iron  core  to  become  magnetized  and  lines  of  force 
pass  between  the  poles  of  the  magnet.    This  is  from  one  end  of  the  iron  core  through  the  au- 
to the  other  end. 

60.  Line  Resistance.    Resistance  of  the  wire  used  in  completing  a  circuit. 

61.  Low  Tension.    This  term  is  used  to  indicate  low  voltage. 

62.  Low  Tension  Magneto.     A  magneto  that  has  in  connection  with  it  a  separate 
ignition  coil. 

63.  Low  Tension  Wire.     Wires  used  to  carry  currents  of  a  low  pressure  (voltage). 
Insulation  on  this  wire  is  thin,  compared  to  that  of  the  high-tension  wire. 

64.  Magnet.    A  body  possessing  the  power  of  attracting  metals  of  a  similar  character 
to  it.    A  body  possessing  a  magnetic  field. 

65.  Magnetic  Attraction.    The  attraction  exerted  by  opposite  poles  upon  each  other. 

66.  Magnetic  Field.    The  region  surrounding  a  magnet,  through  which  lines  of  mag- 
netic force  act.    The  magnetic  field  is  said  to  be  comprised  of  lines  of  magnetic  force. 

67.  Magnetic  Repulsion.     The  repulsion  exerted  by  like  poles  against  each  other. 

68.  Magnetism.     The  peculiar  properties  possessed  by  certain  substances,  such  as 
iron  or  steel,  in  virtue  of  which  they  exert  force  of  attraction  or  repulsion. 

69.  Magnetize.     To  communicate  magnetism  to  a  substance.     To  become  magnetic. 

70.  Magneto.      An  alternating  current  generator  used  to  produce  a  spark  in  the  cyl- 
inders of  a  gas  engine. 


31 

71.  Molecule.    Iron  or  steel  is  said  to  be  made  up  of  molecules.    They  may  be  con- 
sidered as  little  magnets. 

72.  Motor.     A  machine  used  to  convert  electric  energy  into  mechanical  energy. 

73.  Motor  Generator.    A  machine  that  may  be  used  as  a  motor  or  generator. 

74.  Negative.     A  term  used  to  indicate  the  direction  of  flow  of  current  returning  to 
the  source. 

75.  North  Pole.    A  name  given  to  one  of  the  poles  of  a  magnet. 

76.  Ohm.    The  unit  of  electric  resistance.    Resistance  to  the  flow  of  current  is  measured 
in  Ohms. 

77.  Ohms  Law.     Volts  divided  b'y  Amperes  equal  Ohms.     Volts  divided  by  Ohms 
equal  Amperes.    Amperes  multiplied  by  Ohms  equal  Volts.    If  any  two  terms  are  known,  the 
third  can'  easily  be  found  by  this  rule. 

78.  Open  Circuit.     A  circuit  the  electrical  continuity  of  which  has  been  interrupted. 
A  broken  circuit. 

79.  Open  Condenser.    A  condenser  in  which  the  tinfoil  has  been  separated  or  broken 
away  from  the  terminals. 

80.  Overcharge.     Passing  current  through  a  storage  battery  after  all  of  the  acid  has 
been  forced  out  of  the  plates. 

81.  Paints.     Thick  liquids  used  to  give  colors  to  objects  or  to  preserve  them.     Most 
paints  are  conductors  of  a  current  of  electricity,  and  much  care  must  be  exercised  in  their 
use  around  the  insulations  of  any  electric  system. 

82.  Permanent  Magnet.    A  magnet  made  of  hardened  steel  that  possesses  magnetic 
powers. 

83.  Polarity.    The  possession  of  magnetic  poles.    Also  in  testing  the  wires  of  a  charg- 
ing circuit  for  polarity  to  ascertain  the  direction  of  flow  of  current,  this  term  is  used.     In 
making  this  test,  fill  a  glass  with  water  and  stir  in  it  some  salt.     Then  dip  the  ends  of  the 
wires  in  the  solution.    If  it  is  direct  current,  bubbles  will  come  off  the  negative  wire.    If  it  is 
alternating  current,  bubbles  will  come  off  both  wires. 

84.  Pole  (Magnetic).    One  of  the  ends  of  a  magnet. 

85.  Pole  Piece.     In  motors  or  generators,  the  part  that  is  surrounded  by  a  field  coil 
is  called  the  pole  piece. 

86.  Positive.     A  term  used  to  indicate  direction  of  flow  of  current  from  the  source. 

87.  Power.    The  rate  at  which  work  is  done.    Mechanical  power  is  generally  measured 
in  horsepower,  which  is  equal  to  the  lifting  of  550  pounds  one  foot  in  one  second. 

88.  Primary  Circuit.     One  of  the  circuits  where  the  wires  are  larger  than  others  in 
the  same  system,  and  through  which  low-pressure  current  flows. 

89.  Rectifier.    An  electric  instrument  used  to  change  alternating  current  into  direct 
current.     One  of  these  instruments  must  be  used  when  only  alternating  current  is  available 
for  charging  batteries. 

90.  Relay.    An  Electro-magnet  used  to  open  or  close  a  circuit. 

91.  Relay  (Ignition).    Used  as  an  interrupter  in  connection  with  a  battery  ignition 
system. 

92.  Relay  (cut  out).     Used  to  open  or  close  a  circuit,  depending  upon  the  pressure 
of  the  current  flowing  through  one  or  more  of  its  windings. 

93.  Relay  (Current  regulating).     Used  to  control  or  regulate  amount  of  current 
generated  by  generator. 

94.  Residual  Magnetism.    The  magnetism  retained  in  the  core  of  an  electro-magnet 
after  current  ceases  to  flow  through  the  coil. 

95.  Resistance.    That  which  a  substance  offers  to  the  flow  of  an  electric  current. 

96.  Resistance  Wire.    A  wire  composed  of  some  special  alloy,  and  used  in  a  circuit 
to  offer  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current. 


32  INFORMATION 

97.  Return  Circuit.     The  portion  of  an  electric  circuit  through  which  the  current  is 
returning  to  the  source  or  starting  point. 

98.  Rheostat.     A  variable  resistance  box  used  to  regulate  the  flow  of  current  ii/  a 
circuit. 

99.  Secondary  Winding.     The  secondary  winding  of  a  coil  is  the  smaller  wire  used 
where  two  different  sizes  of  wire  are  employed. 

100.  Segments.    The  copper  bars  of  a  commutator  as  used  on  the  armature  of  a  motor 
or  generator. 

101.  Series.     This  term  as  applied  to  the  winding  of  field  coils  means  that  the  circuit 
through  the  machine  is  so  arranged  that  the  current  that  flows  through  the  series  field  flows 
through  the  armature  windings.    When  a  number  of  pieces  of  electric  apparatus  are  connected 
in  a  circuit  so  as  to  let  the  same  current  flow  through  each  piece,  these  parts  are  said  to  be 
connected  in  series. 

102.  Series  Field  Coils.    Field  coils  connected  in  series  with  the  armature.    The  same 
current  that  flows  through  the  coils  must  flow  through  the  armature  when  operated  as  a 
motor. 

103.  Shellac.    Shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol  forms  shellac  varnish,  and  is  a  good  insulator 
to  use  in  electric  systems  or  their  insulations.    If  the  ends  of  cotton-covered  wires  are  shellaced 
it  will  prevent  raveling  of  the  insulation. 

104.  Short  Circuit.     When  an  electric  connection  is  made  that  gives  the  current  a 
shorter  path,  to  flow  through  to  return  to  the  source  than  that  of  the  original  circuit,  that  is 
said  to  be  a  short  circuit. 

105.  Shunt  Field  Coils.     Field  coils  that  are  connected  across  the  brushes  of  a  ma- 
chine in  such  a  way  that  a  part  of  the  current  that  flows  through  this  machine  (.if  operated  as 
a  motor)  flows  through  the  armature  and  a  part  through  the  coils. 

106.  South  Pole.     This  term  is  applied  to  one  of  the  poles  of  a  magnet. 

107.  Volt.     The  unit  of  measurement  of  electric  pressure. 

108.  Watt.    The  unit  of  measurement  of  electric  power. 

SWITCHES 

1.  Construction.     A  switch  in  its  simplest  form  is  nothing  more  than  a  means  of 
opening  and  closing  an  electric  circuit. 

2.  When  a  switch  is  closed,  current  can  flow.     When  a  switch  is  open  current  cannot 
flow  through  it.    When  a  switch  is  closed  it  is  said  to  be  "on."    When  open,  it  is  said  to  be 
"off." 

3.  The  most  important  parts  of  a  switch  are  the  contacts,  insulation,  operating  mech- 
anism, and  frame  or  grounding. 

4.  Switches  may  be  either  hand  operated  or  may  be  automatic  in  operation.    WTe  shall 
deal  only  with  the  hand  operated  switch  in  this  work. 

5.  Contacts.     The  purpose  of  the  contacts  is  to  make  it  easy  to  open  and  close  the 
circuit  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  burning  or  arcing  in  the  point  of  break. 

6.  When  current  is  flowing  in  a  circuit  we  interrupt  the  flow  by  opening  the  circuit, 
and  current  always  tends  to  keep  on  flowing  across  the  gap  at  the  point  of  interruption.    Switch 
contacts,  therefore,  are  very  liable  to  burn  or  corrode,  due  to  this  cause. 

7.  Excessive  burning  of  contact  points  is  generally  due  to  the  amperage  being  too  high, 
contacts  too  small  to  carry  the  necessary  current,  poor  contacts,  or  poor  contact  material. 

8.  Amperage  too  high.    This  is  usually  due  to  a  short-circuit,  cutting  out  some  piece 
of  apparatus  and  allowing  a  heavy  flow  of  current  through  the  switch. 

9.  Broken  contacts.     Poor  contact  is  generally  due  to  dirt  or  corrosion.     Contacts 
not  coming  properly  together  or  bent  contacts,  not  making  firm  contact  to  the  spring  tension, 
or  pieces  of  insulation  getting  in  between  the  contacts. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  33 

10.  Switch  contacts  are  very  often  made  of  copper,  because  this  material  is  an  excellent 
conductor  and  does  not  oxidize. 

11.  Insulation.     Insulation  is  necessary  to  prevent  current  from  getting  through 
the  switch  at  any  other  place  except  the  contacts,  when  closed.    Various  materials  are  used 
for  insulation,  which  are  hard  rubber,  fiber,  and  bake-lite. 

12.  Switches  are  of  various  types,  usually  determined  by  the  method  of  operating. 
The  most  commonly-used  switches  are  known  as  knife  switches,  push-button  switches,  lever, 
and  rotary  switches. 

13.  The  lever  or  rotary  switch  is  most  commonly  used  on  automobiles.    Therefore  we  will 
confine  the  instruction  to  this  switch  only. 

14.  In  switches  of  the  lever  or  rotary  type  a  conductor  or  contact  arm  is  rotated  about 
its  center.    In  one  position  it  makes  contact  with  two  face  contact  points,  which  are  mounted 
in  an  insulated  base.    In  another  position  the  con  tact,  arm  is  moving  away  from  the  contact 
points  and  rests  on  the  insulation. 

15.  Frame  or  Mounting.    The  frame  of  the  switch  may  be  either  of  metal  or  some 
insulated  material,  such  as  hard  rubber  or  bake-lite.     If  made  of  metal  all  contact  and  ter- 
minal posts  must  be  carefully  insulated  to  prevent  grounds  and  short  circuits. 

16.  Inspection  and  Care  of  Switches.     The  important  parts  of  a  switch  to  inspect 
are  the  contact  points,  contact  arms,  contact  springs,  and  the  insulation. 

17.  Contact  Points.     These  must  be  clean  and  properly  fitted  so  as  to  make  perfect 
contact,  otherwise  burning  and  pitting  will  take  place.    Loose  or  broken  contact  points  should 
be  repaired  or  replaced  when  found  in  this  condition. 

18.  Contact  Arms.    This  same  thing  applies  to  contact  arms.    See  that  they  are  not 
bent  or  cracked. 

19.  Contact  Springs.     These  must  be  inspected  to  see  that  they  have  the  proper 
amount  of  tension  so  as  to  hold  the  contacts  firmly  together.    They  must  not  be  too  strong, 
however,  because  this  will  cause  excessive  wear  of  the  contacts. 

20.  Insulation.     See  that  all  contact  points,  arms,  connectors,  and  terminal  posts 
are  properly  insulated.    Examine  all  insulation  to  see  that  it  is  not  cracked,  broken,  or  miss- 
ing.   Always  replace  broken  insulation  when  found  in  this  condition. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  switch? 

2.  Give  terms  used  in  reference  to  switch  lever  positions. 

3.  What  are  the  most  important  parts? 

4.  How  are  switches  operated? 

5.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  contacts? 

6.  What  results  when  a  switch  is  opened? 

7.  Give  most  common  cause  for  the  contacts  burning. 
9.  Give  cause  of  poor  contact. 

10.  \Vhy  are  contacts  often  made  of  copper? 

12.  Name  some  of  the  most  commonly-used  switches 

13.  What  kind  is  used  on  automobiles? 

14.  Describe  operation  of  rotary  type  switch. 

15.  If  switch  frame  is  made  of  metal,  what  must  be  done? 
10.  Name  most  important  parts  to  inspect. 

17.  Give  proper  condition  of  contact  points. 

18.  Give  proper  condition  of  contact  arms. 

19.  Give  proper  condition  of  contact  springs 

20.  Give  method  of  inspecting  insulation. 


34  INFORMATION 

IGNITION 

1.  Ignition.     By  ignition  we  mean  the  act  of  igniting  or  setting  fire  to  the  mixture 
of  gas  and  air  in  each  cylinder  of  a  gas  engine,  at  the  proper  time. 

2.  If  we  connect  two  wires  to  a  battery,  one  to  the  positive  terminal  and  one  to  the 
negative  terminal,  as  long  as  the  two  ends  of  the  wires  are  held  apart  nothing  happens.    If 
we  bring  the  two  ends  of  the  wires  together,  the  current  immediately  begins  to  flow  through 
the  circuit  just  completed. 

3.  When  we  separate  the  wires,  the  current  tends  to  keep  on  flowing  in  the  same  direc- 
tion and  just  at  the  instant  of  separation  of  the  wires  it  will  jump  the  gap  thus  produced. 

In  doing  so,  it  has  to  break  down  the  insulation  between  the  ends  of  the  wire,  namely 
the  air,  and  a  spark  takes  place. 

4.  This  is  the  simplest  way  of  obtaining  a  spark,  but  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  spark 
thus  obtained  is  very  weak  and  the  ends  of  the  wires  have  to  be  very  close  together  before  the 
spark  will  jump.    In  what  is  called  the  primary  ignition  circuit  an  action  similar  to  the  above 
takes  place. 

6.  The  point  of  interruption  is  known  as  the  breaker  points  or  contact  points.  It  is 
not  possible,  however,  to  obtain  a  sufficiently  strong  spark  by  means  of  the  primary  circuit 
alone.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  practical  to  increase  the  voltage  of  the  primary  circuit  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  obtain  ignition  directly  from  it. 

6.  Instead  of  this,  a  method  is  used  in  which  we  have  a  secondary  current  otherwise 
known  as  "high  tension."    This  is  produced  by  means  of  an  ignftion  coil  and  in  this  way  we 
obtain  the  spark  that  actually  fires  the  charge  or  mixture  in  the  cylinders. 

7.  Ignition  Coil.     This  brings  us  to  the  Ignition  Coil,  which  is  also  known  by  various 
other  names,  such  as  induction  coil,  spark  coil,  etc. 

The  laws  governing  the  operation  of  an  ignition  coil  are  well  understood  and  coils 
can  be  satisfactorily  designed  and  constructed  to  perform  any  desired  duty. 

8.  We  know  that  if  certain  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  constructing  a  coil  and  operating 
it,  certain  results  will  be  obtained.    If  the  proper  results  are  not  obtained,  it  is  because  one 
or  more  of  the  necessary  conditions  are  not  being  fulfilled. 

9.  A  Battery  Ignition  System  consists  of  two  circuits,  a  Primary  or  Low  Tension  circuit 
and  a  Secondary  or  High  Tension  circuit. 

The  following  parts  are  necessary:  Source  of  current,  which  may  be  either  Dry 
Cells,  Storage  Battery,  or  a  Generator  (low  voltage).  Contacts  or  Breaker  Points, 
used  to  make  and  "break"  the  primary  circuit;  time  the  instant  at  which  the  "Break"  takes 
place.  Ignition  Coil,  with  two  windings,  known  as  Primary  and  Secondary. 

10.  Condenser.     Its  function  in  the  primary  circuit  is  to  prevent  arcing  at  the  contact 
points  (also  used  in  secondary  circuit  to  "step  up"  the  voltage). 

Switch.     To  open  or  close  primary  circuit  when  required. 

Wiring  necessary  to  connect  up  the  various  parts  just  mentioned.  The  construc- 
tion of  an  ignition  coil  is  very  easy  to  understand. 

11.  The  following  parts  are  used  in  the  construction  of  an  Ignition  Coil: 

Core.  End  irons,  Primary  winding,  Secondary  winding,  Insulating  material, 
Housing  and  Terminals. 

12.  The  core  consists  of  a  number  of  short  lengths  of  soft  iron  wire  perfectly  straight. 
These  wires  are  formed  into  a  round  bundle  and  several  layers  of  good  insulating  material 
(such  as  specially  prepared  paper,  linen,  or  silk)  are  then  wrapped  around  the  bundle. 

13.  The  end  irons  are  two  circular  iron  plates.    They  are  placed  one  at  each  end  of  the 
core  and  held  firmly  in  place  so  as  to  make  good  contact  with  the  core.    The  core  and  end 
irons  thus  form  a  spool. 

14.  A  number  of  turns  of  heavy  copper  wire  (insulated  wire)  are  then  wound  on  the 
core,  forming  the  primary  winding.    This  primary  winding  forms  part  of  the  Primary  or  Low 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  35 

Tension  Ignition  Circuit.    Several  layers  of  good  insulating  material  are  then  wrappeu  around 
the  primary  winding. 

15.  Secondary  Winding.     A  very  large  number  of  turns  of  fine  copper  wire  (insulated 
wire)  are  then  wound  on  top  of  the  primary,  each  layer  of  winding  being  separately  insulated 
from  the  layers  next  to  it.    The  purpose  of  this  extra  insulation  in  the  secondary  winding  is 
to  prevent  a  "break-down"  between  the  layers  of  winding. 

16.  If  only  one  or  two  adjacent  turns  of  the  secondary  winding  were  short  circuited  or 
"broken  down,"  it  would  make  very  little  difference  in  the  action  of  the  coil.    If  two  or  more 
layers,  however,  were  short  circuited,  the  results  would  be  serious.    The  insulation  between 
the  layers  extends  out  beyond  the  ends  of  the  winding  so  as  to  prevent  any  possibility  of 
short  circuiting  at  the  ends. 

17.  Insulating  Material.     As  will  be  seen  later,  the  action  of  the  coil  is  to  produce  a 
current  of  very  high  voltage  in  the  secondary  winding.    It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  Ignition 
Coils  be  carefully  built  and  thoroughly  insulated  at  the  places  mentioned  above. 

18.  Housing  and  Terminals.     After  the  windings  and  insulation  are  in  place,  the 
coil  is  usually  mounted  in  a  Housing  to  protect  it  from  moisture  and  other  kinds  of  injury. 

The  terminal  eads  of  the  windings  that  are  to  be  connected  in  the  circuit  are  led  to 
Terminal  Posts  mounted  on  the  Housing. 

19.  Condenser.     The  construction  of  a  condenser  is  very  simple.     Essentially  a  con- 
denser consists  of  two  pieces  of  tin-foil  which  are  completely  insulated  from  each  other.    The 
insulation  usually  consists  of  two  layers  of  thin  paraffin  paper. 

20.  In  one  form  of  construction  the  tin-foil  is  made  in  long  narrow  strips.     The  two 
strips  of  tin-foil  are  then  placed  with  two  layers  of  paraffin  paper  in  between,  and  two  more 
layers  of  paper,  one  on  the  outside  of  each  strip  of  tin-foil. 

21.  The  whole  is  then  rolled  up  into  the  desired  shape,  circular,  rectangular,  etc.    Each 
strip  of  tin-foil  is,  therefore,  entirely'insulated  from  the  other,  and  each  is  connected  to  a 
terminal  by  means  of  which  the  condenser  may  be  connected  in  the  circuit. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  meant  by  Ignition? 

2.  What  results  when  a  circuit  is  completed? 

3.  What  results  when  a  circuit  is  opened? 

4.  Why  is  the  spark  weak  in  pressure? 

5.  Give  name  applied  to  point  of  interruption. 

6.  How  is  a  strong  (high  voltage)  spark  produced? 

7.  Give  other  names  applied  to  "Ignition  Coil." 

8.  What  may  be  said  of  ignition  coils? 

9.  How  many  circuits  in  a  battery  ignition  system?     Name  parts  necessary. 

10.  What  is  the  condenser  for?     Purpose  of  switch? 

11.  Name  parts  used  in  construction  of  an  ignition  coil. 

12.  What  is  the  core  composed  of? 

13.  Where  are  the  end  irons  placed? 

14.  Give  name  of  the  windings  of  an  ignition  coil. 

1,5.  Give  reason  for  insulation  between  layers  of  secondary. 

16.  If  two  or  more  layers  of  the  secondary  were  short  circuited,  what  would  result? 

17.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  be  so  careful  with  the  insulations? 

18.  Why  is  a  coil  placed  in  a  housing? 

19.  What  is  a  condenser  composed  of? 

20.  Give  one  form  of  construction. 

21.  Why  are  terminals  used? 

22.  Operation  of  Coil  and  Condenser.     When  the  ignition  switch  is  closed,  current 
does  not  immediately  flow  from  the  Storage  Battery  through  the  primary  circuit,  unless  the 


36  INFORMATION 

distributor  contact  points  are  closed.  Just  as  soon  as  the  contact  points  come  together,  due 
to  the  engine  being  turned  over,  current  flows  from  the  battery  through  the  ignition  primary 
circuit,  which  includes  the  primary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil. 

23.  The  points,  however,  are  closed  only  for  a  short  period  and  almost  immediately 
opened  again,  due  to  the  action  of  the  distributor  cam. 

Two  things  that  are  to  be  noted  here  are: 

Closing  the  primary  circuit,  opening  the  primary  circuit. 

24.  Closing  the  Primary  Circuit.     When  the  circuit  is  closed,  current  flows  through 
the  primary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil.    This  causes  the  core  to  become  magnetized.    The 
lines  of  force,  therefore,  flow  through  the  core  and  end  irons,  completing  the  magnetic  circuit 
through  the  air. 

25.  Opening  the  Primary  Circuit.     When  the  circuit  is  opened  at  the  contact 
points,  the  lines  of  force  tend  to  "die  out"  in  the  core.    This  has  the  effect  of  making  a  current 
of  electricity  flow  through  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil. 

26.  If  the  interruption  of  the  primary  current  is  made  suddenly,  a  high  voltage  will  be 
obtained  in  the  secondary  windings.    In  other  words,  the  more  quickly  the  lines  of  force  are 
made  to  die  out  in  the  core,  the  higher  the  voltage  obtained  in  the  secondary. 

27.  Operation  of  Condenser.     The  operation  of  the  condenser  may  be  described  as 
follows:    When  the  primary  points  open,  current  tends  to  keep  on  flowing  across  the  gap. 
This  causes  arcing  at  the  Points,  which  eventually  would  cause  them  to  pit  or  burn. 

28.  The  condenser  is  connected  across  the  primary  points  and  does  two  very  important 
things,  which  are:  Reduces  the  arcing  at  the  primary  points,  and  increases  greatly  the  voltage 
in  the  secondary  winding. 

The  condenser  may  be  said  to  absorb  the  current  that  otherwise  tends  to  flow 
across  the  primary  points  at  the  instant  they  "break." 

29.  The  increase  of  voltage  in  the  secondary  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  condenser  does 
not  retain  the  current  absorbed,  but  immediately  discharges  it.     The  condenser  discharge, 
however,  causes  the  primary  current  to  flow  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which  it  was 
originally  flowing. 

30.  It  has  already  been  said  that  a  current  having  a  high  voltage  is  induced  or  caused 
to  flow  in  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil  at  the  instant  the  primary  circuit  is  interrupted. 
Also  that  if  the  primary  be  interrupted  very  rapidly  the  voltage  of  the  secondary  current 
will  be  much  greater. 

31.  The  sudden  discharge  from  the  condenser,  therefore,  in  the  opposite  direction  to 
the  original  flow  of  the  current  in  the  primary  winding  has  the  effect  of  interrupting  the  flow 
of  current  very  suddenly.    In  this  way  the  high  voltage  necessary  for  ignition  is  obtained  in 
the  secondary  circuit. 

32.  Spark  Plug.     The  spark  plug  is  simply  a  means  of  making  a  gap  in  the  secondary 
circuit,  which  can  be  placed  inside  the  firing  chamber  of  the  gas  engine.     The  high  voltage 
induced  in  the  secondary  winding  causes  arcing  to  take  place  at  the  spark  plug  points.    The 
contact  points  in  the  distributor  are  timed  to  break  just  at  the  instant  when  the  spark  is 
required  in  the  cylinder. 

33.  Note.     It  is  usual  to  "ground"  one  end  of  the  secondary  winding  to  the  coil 
bracket,  which  in  turn  is  connected  to  the  frame  of  the  engine.    The  other  end  of  the  secondary 
leads  to  the  distributor,  from  which  it  goes  in  turn  to  the  center  point  of  each  spark  plug. 

34.  The  center  point  of  the  spark  plug  is  insulated  from  the  engine  frame.    The  other 
point  of  the  spark  plug  is  attached  to  the  body  of  the  plug,  which  is  screwed  into  the  cylinder 
head.    The  secondary  circuit  is,  therefore,  completed  through  the  frame  of  the  engine. 


ELEMENTARY   ELECTRICITY  37 

QUESTIONS 

22.  Does  current  flow  immediately  when  the  switch  is  closed? 

23.  What  causes  the  interrupter  points  to  open  and  close? 

24.  When  does  current  flow  through  the  primary?     What  effect  has  the  flow  of  current? 

25.  What  results  when  the  contacts  open? 

26.  What  is  necessary  to  generate  high  voltage? 

27.  If  it  were  not  for  the  condenser,  what  would  result  when  the  primary  points  opened? 

28.  How  is  the  condenser  connected? 

29.  Describe  the  increase  of  voltage  in  the  secondary. 

30.  How  does  current  get  into  the  secondary  of  the  coil? 

31.  Give  effect  of  condenser  discharge. 

32.  What  is  a  spark  plug? 

33.  To  what  are  the  ends  of  the  secondary  connected? 

34.  Describe  the  secondary  circuit. 

DISTRIBUTORS 

35.  The  term  "distributor"  properly  means  the  part  of  the  ignition  system  used  to  dis- 
tribute the  high  tension  current  to  the  spark  plugs.     For  the  present  purpose,  however,  we 
will  include  also  the  breaker  mechanism  used  in  the  low  tension  circuit  of  the  ignition  system. 

36.  The  reason  for  this  is  because  the  breaker  mechanism  and  high  tension  distributor 
are  often  built  together  and  form  a  single  unit. 

The  breaker  mechanism  will  be  described  under  the  following  heads:  Purpose  of 
Breaker  Mechanism,  Construction  of  Breaker  Mechanism,  and  Care  and  Adjustment  of 
Contact  Points. 

37.  Purpose  of  Breaker  Mechanism.     A  cam,  known  as  the  distributor  cam,  con- 
taining the  necessary  number  of  points  or  "lobes"  is  driven  by  means  of  gears  from  the  crank 
shaft  of  the  engine.     The  number  of  points  on  the  cam  is  determined  by  the  number  of 
cylinders  to  be  fired. 

38.  Sometimes  one  cam  is  used  for  all  the  cylinders  in  the  engine,  and  sometimes  two 
cams  are  used.    If  only  one  cam  is  used  there  will  be  as  many  points  on  the  cam  as  there  are 
cylinders.     A  four-cylinder  engine  thus  having  a  4-point  cam,  etc. 

39.  If  two  cams  are  used  there  will  be  two  separate  distributors.     Each  distributor 
will,  therefore,  be  used  for  half  the  number  of  cylinders  and  the  timing  will  be  arranged  so 
that  the  distributors  work  alternately. 

40.  When  two  distributors  are  used  in  the  above  manner,  there  will  be  only  half  as 
many  points  on  each  cam  as  there  are  cylinders.    This  arrangement  would  of  course  only  be 
used  on  engines  having  a  large  number  of  cylinders  and  running  at  high  speed.    A  12-cylinder 
engine,  for  example,  might  have  two  distributors,  each  distributor  having  a  6-point  cam  and 
timed  so  as  to  work  alternately. 

41.  On  any  four-cycle  engines  the  speed  of  the  ignition  cam  must  be  exactly  half  the 
speed  of  the  crank  shaft.    The  reason  for  this  is  because  each  cylinder  in  a  four-cycle  engine 
only  fires  once  during  two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft. 

42.  The  distributor  cam  operates  or  alternately  opens  and  closes  a  pair  of  contact 
points.     These  contact  points  form  part  of  the  low  tension  or  primary  circuit. 

43.  When  the  contact  points  are  closed  (after  the  ignition  switch  is  closed)  current 
can  flow  through  the  primary  circuit. 

When  the  contact  points  are  opened,  by  the  action  of  the  cam,  the  flow  of  current 
through  the  primary  circuit  is  interrupted  at  this  point  and  no  more  current  flows  until  the 
points  close  again. 

44.  Care  and  Adjustment  of  Contact  Points.    The  contact  points  are  made  of  a 
material  that  must  possess  the  following  properties: 

Low  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current,  hardness,  and  not  readily  oxidized. 


38  INFORMATION 

45.  Platinum  is  often  used  for  ignition   contact  points,   particularly  on   magnetos. 
Tungsten,  however,  is  found  to  be  more  suitable  for  contact  points  used  on  battery  ignition. 
Tungsten  is  an  extremely  hard  metal  and  cannot  be  filed.    When  Tungsten  points  require  to 
be  redressed  or  re-faced,  an  oil  stone  or  sand  paper  should  be  used. 

Contact  points  should  come  squarely  and  evenly  together. 

46.  When  the  points  become  pitted,  it  will  be  noticed  that  one  point  has  a  small  hollow 
burned  in  it  while  the  other  point  has  a  small  point  projecting  from  it.    To  re-face  these  points 
it  is  only  necessary  to  rub  down  the  projecting  point  with  the  oil  stone  or  sand  paper. 

47.  The  point  containing  the  hollow  does  not  need  to  be  faced.     Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  round  off  the  face.    It  must  be  made  perfectly  flat  and  must  fit  squarely  against  the 
other  point. 

48.  Contact  points  must  be  kept  clean,  because  oil  or  dirt  will  cause  excessive  arcing 
across  the  points.    This  causes  them  to  pit  rapidly.    The  adjustment  of  the  gap  or  distance 
between  the  points  is  very  important. 

49.  Points  should  be  set  to  the  gap  recommended  by  the  manufacturers.     This  may 
vary  considerably,  depending  upon  the  type  of  apparatus  used,  so  it  is  always  best  to  know 
the  correct  setting  for  each  type. 

QUESTIONS 

35.  What  is  a  distributor? 

36.  Why  is  the  breaker  mechanism  usually  built  in  with  the  distributor? 

37.  How  is  the  cam  driven? 

38.  How  many  lobes  on  the  cam? 

39.  How  many  lobes  on  the  cams  when  two  are  used? 

41.  Give  speed  of  the  cam. 

42.  What  is  the  operation  of  the  cam? 

43.  What  results  when  contacts  open  and  close? 

44.  What  kind  of  material  must  be  used  in  the  contacts? 

45.  Name  two  of  the  best  contact  materials. 

46.  Describe  condition  of  points  when  pitted. 

47.  Give  method  of  re-facing  contacts. 

48.  What  effect  will  oil  or  dirt  have  on  the  contacts? 

49.  Is  the  setting  of  all  contact  points  the  same? 

60.    Distribution  of  High  Tension  Current.    Source  of  High  Tension  Current. 

When  the  contact  points  in  the  primary  ignition  circuit  open  or  "break,"  a  current  is  said 
to  be  induced  in  the  secondary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil.  This  induced  current  is  called 
the  High  Tension  current. 

63.  The  Rotor.  The  Rotor  is  simply  a  revolving  arm  driven  by  the  distributor  cam 
shaft.  The  rotor  is  made  of  insulating  material,  but  has  a  metal  conductor  connecting  the 
center  of  the  rotor  with  a  brush  placed  at  the  end  of  the  arm.  The  wire  leading  from  the 
secondary  winding  of  the  coil  makes  contact  with  the  end  of  the  conductor  at  the  center  of 
the  rotor. 

54.  High  tension  current  is  thus  conducted  to  the  brush  at  the  end  of  the  Rotor  arm. 
When  the  rotor  revolves  the  brush  makes  contact  with  a  number  of  brass  inserts  set  in  the 
distributor  head.  Each  of  these  inserts  is  connected  by  means  of  a  wire  to  the  center  terminal 
or  electrode  of  one  of  the  engine  spark  plugs. 

65.  The  center  terminal  of  the  spark  plug  is  entirely  insulated  from  everything  else  by 
means  of  porcelain  or  some  other  suitable  insulating  material. 

56.  The  outer  terminal  of  electrode  of  the  spark  plug  is  attached  to  the  steel  part  which 
screws  into  the  cylinder  head.  In  other  words,  the  outer  terminal  of  the  spark  plug  is 
"grounded"  to  the  engine,  when  the  plug  is  screwed  into  place.  The  High  Tension  circuit- 
is  therefore  completed  through  the  frame  to  the  end  of  the  secondary  winding,  which  is 
"grounded"  as  already  explained. 


ELEMENTARY   ELECTRICITY  39 

57.  The  relation  between  the  rotor  brush  and  the  inserts  in  the  distributor  head  is 
such  that  the  brush  is  making  contact  with  an  insert  each  time  the  breaker  contact  points 
separate.    Also  the  breaker  contact  points  are  timed  to  open  at  the  correct  instant  for  firing 
the  cylinders  properly. 

58.  In  this  way  the  High  Tension  current  is  induced  in  the  secondary  winding  of  the 
coil  at  the  proper  time  and  the  spark  jumps  the  gap  in  the  spark  plug  and  fires  the  mixture. 

59.  When  removing  High  Tension  wires  from  a  distributor  and  re-attaching  them 
care  must  be  taken  to  mark  them  so  as  to  get  them  back  where  they  belong.    Otherwise  the 
firing  order  will  be  changed,  and  the  engine  will  not  run  properly. 

60.  High   Tension  wires  should  have  specially  heavy  insulation  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  become  soaked  with  oil.    This  ruins  the  insulation  very  quickly  and  causes  short 
circuits  which  in  turn  cause  the  engine  to  miss. 

QUESTIONS 

50.  What  is  meant  by  "High  Tension"? 

53.  What  is  a  rotor  made  of? 

54.  Give  operation  of  the  rotor. 

55.  Is  the  center  terminal  of  the  spark  plug  insulated? 

56.  To  what  is  the  outer  terminal  of  a  spark  plug  connected? 

57.  Give  relation  between  rotor  brush  and  inserts  in  distributor  head. 

58.  What  results  when  sparks  jump  the  gap  in  the  plug? 

59.  What  should  be  done  when  removing  high  tension  wires? 

60.  What  effect  will  oil  have  on  high  tension  wires? 

SPARK  PLUGS 

61.  A  spark  plug  consists  of  an  outer  shell,  insulating  core,  center  electrode,  and  outer 
electrode. 

62.  Outer  Shell.     The  outer  shell  is  made  of  steel  and  is  threaded  so  it  can  be  screwed 
into  the  cylinder. 

63.  Insulating  Core.     An  insulating  core  or  sleeve  is  used  between  the  outer  shell 
and  the  center  electrode.    This  is  usually  made  of  porcelain,  although  mica  is  also  frequently 
used.    Porcelain  has  a  tendency  to  crack  due  to  rapid  changes  in  temperature  or  to  careless 
handling.     Mica  tends  to  become  oil  soaked  through  time. 

64.  Center  Electrode.     The  binding  post  or  spark  plug  terminal  connects  to  the  center 
electrode  or  "point."    Electrodes  are  usually  made  of  Platinum,  Iridium,  and  Nickel  Alloys. 

65.  Outer  Electrode.     This  is  attached  to  the  outer  shell  and  enables  the  High  Ten- 
sion current  to  "ground"  after  jumping  the  gap  between  the  points.    The  distance  between 
the  points  is  very  important  and  must  be  carefully  adjusted  by  means  of  a  gauge.    The  gap 
will  vary  with  different  types  of  ignition,  therefore  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  know  the 
correct  size  of  gauge  to  use. 

66.  Do  not  depend  on  your  memory,  but  find  out  what  is  the  correct  gap  for  the  system 
you  are  working  with  and  set  the  spark  plug  points  accordingly. 

67.  If  the  points  are  too  far  apart  the  resistance  to  the  flow  of  current  across  the  gap 
is  increased.    In  other  words,  it  makes  it  more  difficult  for  the  current  to  jump  the  gap.    A 
small  amount  of  dirt  or  oil  on  the  surface  of  the  insulation  will,  therefore,  provide  an  easier 
path  for  the  current  and  the  plug  will  then  be  short-circuited. 

68.  Examining  Plugs.     When  a  spark  plug  is  removed  for  examination,  first  clean  it 
thoroughly,  using  gasoline.    Then  inspect  carefully  for  broken  insulation,  cracked  insulation, 
and  condition  of  points. 

69.  Broken  Insulation.     This  can  usually  be  readily  seen,  but  in  some  cases  the 
break  may  be  invisible  until  the  plug  is  taken  apart.    Always  shake  the  plug  and  listen  for  a 
rattle  indicating  broken  porcelain. 


40 


INFORMATION 


70.  Cracked  Insulation.     This  is  often  difficult  to  detect,  unless  it  is  by  noting  that 
the  points  are  not  burned  white,  or  the  cylinder  misses  at  high  speed.    If  any  plug  fails  to 
show  a  whitish  appearance  on  the  points,  the  insulation  is  probably  defective,  and  the  plug 
should  be  replaced  with  a  new  one. 

71.  Condition  of  Points.     When  a  plug  is  firing  properly  the  points  should  show  the 
whitish  appearance  mentioned  above.    Sometimes  small  metallic  beads  will  be  found  on  the 
points.    This  indicates  that  the  points  are  set  too  close,  and  should  be  adjusted  002"  or  003" 
farther  apart. 

72.  Care  of  Spark  Plugs.     When  it  is  necessary  to  scrape  carbon  from  the  plug,  this 
should  be  done  very  gently.    Be  careful  not  to  wedge  anything  between  the  shell  of  the  plug 
and  the  insulation,  because  this  might  crack  the  insulation.    Always  use  a  gauge  of  the  proper 
thickness  to  adjust  the  points. 

73.  Use  New  Spark  Plug  Gaskets  frequently.     After  being  used  a  few  times  the 
gaskets  become  flattened  arid  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  put  a  great  strain  on  the  wrench 
in  order  to  make  the  plugs  tight.     This  usually  results  in  a  broken  porcelain.     Never  drop 
spark  plugs  or  handle  them  roughly  because  there  is  a  danger  of  cracking  the  porcelain. 

74.  If  a  few  drops  of  oil  are  placed  on  the  spark  plug  thread  before  screwing  it  into 
the  cylinder,  it  will'  be  much  easier  to  remove. 

QUESTIONS 

61.  Name  the  parts  of  a  spark  plug. 

62.  Give  construction  of  the  outer  shell. 

63.  What  kind  of  insulating  materials  are  used? 

64.  What  are  electrodes  made  of? 

65.  To  what  is  the  outer  electrode  connected? 

66.  Should  the  spark  plug  gap  always  be  the  same? 

67.  What  will  result  if  the  gap  is  too  wider 

What  effect  will  oil  or  dirt  have  on  the  operation  of  a  plug? 

68.  Give  method  of  inspecting  a  spark  plug. 

69.  Give  method  of  inspecting  for  broken  insulation. 

70.  What  would  indicate  cracked  insulation? 

71.  What  indicates  that  the  plug  is  firing  properly? 

72.  Give  general  care  of  plugs. 

73.  Why  replace  spark  plug  gaskets? 

74.  Why  use  oil  on  the  threads  of  a  spark  plug? 

IGNITION  THEORY. 

The  seventeen  figures  on  pages  42  and  43  are  intended  to  make  clear  the  operation 
of  an  induction  coil  and  battery  ignition  systems. 

In  Figure  1  we  have  a  soft  iron  core,  showing  the  molecules  in  their  original 
state,  which  are  in  confused  positions. 

In  Figure  2  is  shown  the  same  soft  iron  core  and  the  positions  the  molecules 
would  assume  if  this  iron  core  was  magnetized.  You  will  note  in  Figure  2  that 
the  molecules  are  all  parallel  with  each  other.  We  have  omitted  showing  the  lines 
of  force  that  would  pass  from  pole  to  pole  of  this  magnet  through  the  air. 

In  Figure  3  is  shown  an  arrow,  which  represents  the  position  of  a  molecule  in 
a  bar  of  soft  iron.  Note  its  position. 

In  Figure  4  we  have  the  same  bar  of  soft  iron  with  an  insulated  wire  wrapped 
around  it  and  a  current  of  electricity  from  one  dry  cell  passing  through  this  wire. 
The  effect  of  the  electricity  passing  through  the  insulated  wire  which  is  wound 
around  this  iron  core,  has  caused  the  molecule  to  change  its  position  as  indicated 
by  the  arrow.  Note  that  one  end  of  this  bar  is  marked  "N"  indicating  North  Pole, 
and  the  other  end  marked  "S,"  indicating  South  Pole. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  41 

In  Figure  5  we  have  the  same  bar  of  iron,  the  only  difference  being  that  current 
is  passing  through  the  wire  which  surrounds  this  core  in  the  opposite  direction. 
The  arrow  indicates  the  position  of  the  molecules  under  this  condition,  which  shows 
that  the  polarity  of  this  magnet  has  reversed,  making  one  end  the  North  Pole  and 
the  other  end  the  South  Pole  just  opposite  to  Figure  4. 

The  polarity  of  an  electro  magnet  depends  then  upon  the  direction  the  insulated 
wire  is  wound  around  the  core  and  direction  current  flows  through  this  wire. 

In  Figure  6  lines  of  force  are  shown  in  their  direction  of  travel.  Note  that 
the  lines  of  force  pass  through  the  air  from  the  North  to  the  South  Pole  and  through 
the  metal  from  the  South  to  the  North  Pole. 

In  the  construction  of  an  ignition  coil  it  is  necessary  to  produce  as  many  lines 
of  force  as  possible  from  a  small  amount  of  metal.  The  efficiency  of  an  induction 
coil  with  a  solid  iron  core  would  be  very  low,  due  to  the  fact  that  eddy  current  would 
interfere  greatly. 

In  Figure  6  is  shown  the  direction  lines  of  force  travel  in  the  solid  iron  core 
and  through  the  air.  While  in  Figure  7,  which  is  an  end  view  of  the  same  piece 
of  metal,  the  direction  of  travel  of  eddy  currents  is  shown.  Note  the  whirl  of  these 
currents.  These  eddy  currents  as  shown  in  Figure  7  have  a  tendency  to  decrease 
or  interfere  with  the  travel  of  lines  of  force  as  shown  in  Figure  6. 

Therefore,  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  solid  iron  core  in  an  induction  coil.  In- 
stead we  use  soft  iron  wires,  as  shown  in  Figure  8.  The  soft  iron  wires  as  shown 
in  Figure  8  have  been  annealed,  which  make  them  soft,  also  a  scale  has  been  formed 
on  them.  These  wires  are  formed  into  a  bundle  with  an  insulation  surrounding 
them,  and  then  several  turns  of  very  heavy  wire  are  wrapped  around  this  core  as 
shown  in  Figure  9. 

This  winding  is  known  as  the  primary.  An  insulaton  is  now  placed  over  the 
primary  winding,  and  upon  this  is  wound  what  is  known  as  the  secondary  as  shown 
in  Figure  10.  This  wire  is  wound  on  in  layers  with  two  sheets  of  parafin  paper 
between  each  layer. 

In  Figure  11  is  shown  a  complete  induction  coil  that  has  been  sawed  in  two 
in  the  middle,  which  shows  very  plainly  the  positions  of  the  core  and  the  windings. 
At  "A"  is  shown  the  secondary,  often  called  "High  Tension"  Winding.  At  "B"  is 
shown  the  primary  or  coarse  winding.  At  "C"  is  shown  the  soft  iron  wire  core. 
In  the  operation  of  an  induction  coil  it  is  first  necessary  to  pass  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity through  the  primary  or  coarse  winding,  which  creates  lines  of  force,  which 
travel  through  the  air  and  the  core  as  indicated  in  Figure  12. 

When  the  flow  of  current  in  the  primary  circuit  is  interrupted,  the  core  of  the 
induction  coil  quickly  becomes  demagnetized,  as  shown  in  Figure  13.  When  the  core 
becomes  demagnetized  almost  instantly  as  it  does  in  the  operation  of  an  ignition 
coil,  you  will  note  the  position  assumed  by  the  molecules.  Also  the  lines  of  force 
that  were  traveling  through  the  air.  Instead  of  continuing  to  travel  through  the 
air  in  order  to  return  to  the  core,  they  are  taking  the  shortest  path  which  is  directly 
through  the  space  occupied  by  the  secondary  or  high  tension  winding,  as  shown 
at  "A." 

In  the  operation  of  a  generator,  lines  of  force  are  first  created  and  then  a  coil 
of  wire  is  revolved  through  them.  In  the  operation  of  an  ignition  coil  lines  of  force 
are  first  created  and  then  caused  to  travel  through  the  secondary  winding  of  this 
coil,  as  shown  in  Figure  13. 

Figures  14,  15,  16,  and  17  are  intended  to  make  clear  the  difference  between  a 
vibrating  coil  ignition  system  and  a  single  spark  ignition  system. 

In  Figure  14  is  shown  a  skeleton  or  circuit  diagram  of  an  ordinary  door  bell, 
connected  in  series  with  a  six  volt  storage  battery  and  a  push  button.  "A"  repre- 
sents the  bell;  "B"  the  tapper,  which  strikes  the  bell;  "C"  is  a  stop  for  the  arma- 
ture to  rest  against;  "X"  is  the  contacts  where  the  circuit  is  opened  and  closed,  when 
armature  vibrates;  "F"  is  the  armature;  "G"  is  the  tension  spring  on  the  armature; 


42 


INFORMATION 


•»  \ 

}' 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY 


43 


O^7 — I    I QJ-j 

f    *V**  *•*•••  1 

~T~  *"~  ^  "T" 


FIG.  IS 


44  INFORMATION 

"H"  is  the  hinge  joint  of  the  armature;  "D"  is  the  iron  core  upon  which  winding 
"E"  is  wound;  at  "J"  is  shown  the  terminals  of  the  bell  itself;  "K"  is  the  push 
button,  and  "L"  is  the  small  button  that  is  'depressed  when  bell  is  operated.  "M"  is 
the  six-volt  storage  battery. 

When  the  small  button  "L"  is  depressed,  a  circuit  is  completed.  This  in  turn 
permits  current  to  flow  from  the  storage  battery  through  the  winding  which  sur- 
rounds the  iron  core.  The  core  almost  instantly  becomes  magnetized  and  attracts 
armature  "F"  which  causes  tapper  "B"  to  strike  the  bell.  t  At  the  instant  of  this 
operation,  you  will  note  that  the  contacts  separate  at  "X,"  which  opens  the  circuit. 
The  core  then  demagnetizes  and  releases  armature  "F"  which  falls  back  to  its 
original  position. 

When  armature  "F"  falls  back  to  its  original  position  it  closes  the  circuit 
again,  and  the  same  operation  will  take  place  again  as  just  described.  In  fact,  just 
so  long  as  the  small  button  "L"  is  depressed,  armature  "F"  will  vibrate  back  and 
forth  and  tapper  "B"  will  continue  striking  the  bell.  This  gives  us  a  great  number 
of  strokes  for  each  depression  of  the  button.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  an  ignition 
system,  when  a  vibrator  is  used  on  a  coil. 

In  Figure  16  is  shown  a  vibrating  ignition  coil  connected  in  series  with  a  timer, 
and  a  six-volt  storage  battery.  "A"  and  "B"  are  the  terminals  of  the  secondary 
winding  of  the  coil.  This  winding  is  shown  on  one  end  of  the  core  in  order  that  we 
may  make  clear  the  two  circuits.  "C"  is  the  space  between  "A"  and  "B"  at  which 
high  tension  current  generated  into  the  secondary  will  jump.  This  space  is  called 
a  gap.  "D"  is  the  core  of  the  induction  coil.  "F"  is  the  secondary  winding.  "E"  is 
the  primary  winding.  "L"  is  the  spring  stop.  "M"  is  a  tension  spring,  used  to  hold 
the  armature  in  its  proper  position  when  not  operating.  "N"  is  a  hinged  joint  of 
the  armature.  "O"  is  the  contacts,  and  "P"  is  the  armature.  At  "J"  is  shown  the 
contact  in  the  timer,  and  "H"  is  the  roller  which  travels  in  the  timer  and  makes 
contact  once  for  each  revolution.  "G"  shows  the  timer.  The  dotted  lines  represent 
the  insulated  portion  of  the  timer.  At  "K"  is  shown  the  six-volt  storage  battery. 

The  instant  contact  is  made  in  the  timer,  armature  "P"  will  start  vibrating  just 
the  same  as  armature  "F"  in  Figure  14  will  vibrate  when  button  is  depressed. 

After  the  armature  "P"  in  Figure  16  is  attracted  towards  the  core,  current  is 
generated  into  the  secondary  winding  of  the  induction  coil  and  jumps  the  gap  at  "C." 
Armature  "P"  will  continue  vibrating  just  as  long  as  roller  "H"  is  in  contact  with 
contact  "J."  This  means  that  a  great  number  of  sparks  will  occur  at  "C."  The 
vibrator  of  the  bell  is  identically  the  same  as  the  vibrator  of  the  ignition  coil,  and 
in  either  case  will  vibrate  rapidly  just  so  long  as  the  circuit  is  completed. 

In  Figure  15  is  shown  a  single  stroke  bell.  When  the  small  button  at  "L"  is 
depressed,  current  will  flow  from  the  storage  battery  through  the  winding,  which 
surrounds  the  iron  core  "D."  This  will  cause  the  core  to  become  magnetized,  which 
will  attract  armature  "F."  This  armature  will  be  attracted  and  remain  over  against 
core  "D"  so  long  as  button  is  depressed.  The  instant  the  button  "L"  is  released, 
the  circuit  will  be  opened  which  allows  the  armature  "F"  to  return  to  its  original 
position.  When  armature  "F"  returns  to  its  original  position,  the  tapper  "B"  will 
strike  the  bell  one  time.  In  fact,  tapper  "B"'  will  strike  the  bell  one  tap  only  for  each 
time  button  is  depressed. 

In  Figure  15  you  will  note,  there  is  no  vibrator  in  connection  with  this  bell 
which  makes  it  known  as  a  single  stroke  bell. 

In  Figure  17  is  shown  an  ignition  system  very  similar  to  the  one  shown  in 
Figure  16,  with  the  exception  that  the  vibrator  has  been  eliminated.  In  this  sys- 
tem we  do  not  get  the  spark  from  the  secondary  winding  of  the  induction  coil, 
when  we  make  contact  in  the  timer.  Instead  we  get  a  spark  from  the  secondary 
winding  of  the  induction  coil  at  gap  "C"  when  roller  "H"  leaves  contact  "J."  When 
roller  "H"  makes  contact  with  contact  "J"  current  flows  through  the  primary  winding 
of  the  ignition  coil  which  causes  the  core  to  become  magnetized,  and  will  remain  in 


45 

this  condition  until  roller  "H"  leaves  contact  "J."  At  the  instant  roller  "H"  leaves 
contact  "J"  current  is  generated  into  the  secondary  winding  of  the  induction  coil 
and  a  spark  is  produced  at  gap  "C." 

We  will  suppose  that  current  is  traveling  through  the  primary  circuit  of  a 
battery  ignition  system.  It  has  caused  the  core  to  become  magnetized  and  lines 
of  force  are  passing  through  the  air  from  the  North  to  the  South  Pole  in  many 
directions.  When  the  timer  contacts  separate,  the  current  flowing  in  the  primary 
circuit  attempts  to  go  through  the  condenser.  In  making  this  attempt  the  condenser 
is  charged,  but  immediately  discharges  back  through  the  primary  circuit,  almost 
instantly.  This  instant  change  in  the  direction  of  flow  of  current  in  the  primary 
circuit  causes  the  core  of  the  induction  coil  to  become  demagnetized  much  more 
quickly.  In  fact,  the  quicker  the  core  becomes  demagnetized,  the  higher  will  be 
the  voltage  of  the  current  generated  into  the  secondary  winding,  due  to  the  sudden 
collapse  of  the  lines  of  force  which  must  pass  through  the  secondary  winding  to 
shorten  their  path  when  returning  to  the  core. 

THE  THEORY  OF  THE  STORAGE  BATTERY 

1.  Probably  no  other  piece  of  electrical  apparatus  in  common  use  to-day  is  so  generally 
misunderstood  as  the  storage  battery.    The  following  description  will  give  the  reader  a  clear 
conception  of  the  elementary  principles  involved  in  the  operation  of  the  storage  battery. 

2.  In  effect  the  storage  battery  has  the  same  relation  to  an  electrical  system  that  a 
standpipe  or  reservoir  has  to  a  water  supply  system;  but  note  the  difference  in  the  Means 
which  lead  to  this  Effect. 

3.  Water  is  stored  in  the  reservoir  merely  as  water.     Electricity  cannot  be  stored  as 
electricity.     In  the  storage  battery  the  electricity  first  produces  a  chemical  effect.     This 
action  may  then  be  reversed  to  produce  an  electrical  current. 

4.  When  a  current  of  electricity  flows  through  a  solution  of  water,  in  which  a  small 
quantity  of  ordinary  table  salt  has  been  dissolved,  the  water  of  the  solution  will  be  broken  up 
or  decomposed  into  its  component  parts — Oxygen  and  Hydrogen. 

6.  Let  us  suppose  that  current  from  two  dry  cells  is  caused  to  flow  through  two  platinum 
wires,  the  ends  of  which  are  immersed  without  touching  each  other  in  a  glass  of  salt  water. 
(A — Fig.  1.)  The  current  must  flow  through  the  solution  of  salt  and  water,  and  in  doing  so 
will  decompose  the  water  into  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen. 

6.  Bubbles  of  Hydrogen  gas  will  rise  from  the  wire  through  which  the  current  leaves 
the  solution,  and  Oxygen  gas  will  be  liberated  at  the  wire  through  which  the  current  enters 
the  solution. 

7.  Now,  if  we  should  suddenly  disconnect  the  wires  from  our  dry  battery  and  connect 
them  to  a  sensitive  electric  measuring  instrument  we  should  find  that  a  current  flows  through 
the  wires  from  the  glass  of  salt  water  (B— Fig.  1). 

8.  Closer  investigation  will  show  that  the  small  amount  of  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen 
clinging  to  the  wires  in  the  glass  had  gone  back  into  solution  as  water,  and  in  so  doing  had 
given  back  in  the  form  of  electric  energy  part  of  the  energy  required  to  liberate  them  from 
the  solution. 

9.  In  the  simple  experiment  above  outlined  we  have  described  the  action  of  an  elementary 
and  very  inefficient  storage  battery;  but  the  reader  will  have  noted  the  ability  of  the  electric 
current  to  produce  a  chemical  effect,  and  the  ability  of  chemical  action  to  cause  a  flow  of 

electric  current. 

T 

10.  Let  us  carry  our  investigation  a  bit  further.    We  substitute  for  our  solution  of  salt 

and  water  one  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  and  instead  of  using  platinum  wires  in 
the  solution  we  immerse  strips  of  lead  (A — Fig.  2). 

11.  When  we  pass  our  electric  current  through  one  lead  strip,  thence  through  the  solu- 
tion and  out  at  the  other  strip,  the  water  is  decomposed  as  before  into  its  elements,  Hydrogen 


46 


INFORMATION 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY 


47 


Fig.  3 
ALLOY  GRID 


Fig.  4 
FORMING  TANK 


Fig.  5. 

FINISHED  PLATE. 
18 


48  INFORMATION 

and  Oxygen.  However,  instead  of  Oxygen  being  liberated  in  the  form  of  gas  bubbles  at  the 
strip  through  which  the  current  enters,  it  combines  with  the  lead  strip  to  form  lead  oxide, 
which  is  a  reddish  brown  color. 

12.  Now,  if  we  disconnect  the  source  of  current  and  attach  our  measuring  instrument, 
or  voltmeter,  to  the  conductors  leading  to  the  apparatus  described,  we  find  that  an  electric 
current  flows  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  (B — Fig.  2). 

13.  The  Oxygen  which  combines  with  the  lead  strip  to  form  lead  oxide,  recombines  with 
the  solution,  leaving  the  plate  in  its  original  form  as  metallic  lead  when  the  current  has  alto- 
gether ceased  to  flow. 

14.  The  operation  of  "charging"  or  decomposing  the  solution,  or  electrolyte,  may  be 
repeated,  and  the  complete  operation  of  causing  a  current  of  electricity  to  produce  a  chemical 
effect,  and  then  in  turn  causing  chemical  action  to  produce  a  flow  of  current,  is  known  as  a 
"cycle." 

15.  It  would  be  noted  in  both  the  experiments  described  that  the  current  flows  in  a 
reverse  direction  in  discharging;  that  is,  if  the  charging  current  flows  into  the  solution  at  one 
strip,  it  flows  from  the  solution  at  the  same  strip  when  discharging. 

16.  We  should  further  note  that  no  matter  how  small  or  how  large  we  made  the  lead 
strips,  the  force  of  the  current  discharged  from  the  cell  would  be  about  two  volts.    Our  little 
apparatus  contained  in  a  glass  tumbler  would  give  rise  to  the  same  voltage  as  the  largest 
storage  cell  built.    However,  should  we  measure  the  amount  of  current  and  the  time  it  flowed 
from  the  solution,  we  would  find  that  these  quantities  varied  with  the  size  of  our  strips. 

17.  We  have  in  this  second  experiment  described  the  operation  and  essential  parts  of 
the  ordinary  storage  battery.     While  any  school  boy  could  construct  this  simple  battery  of 
lead  strips  and  sulphuric  acid  solution,  the  design  and  production  of  a  commercially  practicable 
storage  battery  involves  a  tremendous  amount  of  detailed  refinement. 

18.  The  storage  cell  of  commercial  practicability  is  made  up  of  the  following  parts: 
A  jar,  or  container,  usually  made  of  rubber. 

Positive  and  negative  piates. 
Separators  between  the  plates. 
Solution  of  electrolyte,  and 
Covers  and  Connectors. 

19.  The  plates  are  made  by  pasting  the  active  material  on  a  grid  of  lead  alloy  (Fig.  3). 
The  grid  serves  to  support  this  active  material,  which  dries  on  the  grid  as  a  porous  mass, 
exposing  a  far  greater  amount  of  surface  to  the  action  of  the  solution  than  could  be  done  if  a 
solid  strip  or  plate  were  used. 

20.  After  the  plates  are  prepared  in  this  manner,  they  are  placed  in  a  lead-lined  tank 
containing  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water.    Current  is  passed  through  the  plates  and 
solution,  as  shown  by  Fig.  4,  the  current  entering  through  half  the  number  of  plates  and 
leaving  through  the  other  half. 

21.  The  solution  is  decomposed,  liberating  hydrogen  at  the  negative  plates  (the  ones 
through  which  the  current  leaves  the  solution  in  charging) 'and  liberating  oxj^gen  at  the  posi- 
tive plates  (through  which  the  current  enters  the  solution  in  charging). 

22.  The  hydrogen  combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  negative  plate,  tending  to  make  it 
pure  metallic  lead.     The  oxygen  combines  with  the  oxygen  already  present  on  the  positive 
plate,  changing  its  form  to  the  brown  peroxide  of  lead  described  in  our  second  experiment. 

23.  This  initial  charging  is  termed  "forming  the  plates."    After  they  have  been  formed, 
the  plates  are  placed  together  in  groups  of  alternate  negatives  and  positives,  held  apart  by 
the  separators. 

24.  It  has  been  found  in  practice  that  placing  two  separators  between  each  pair  of 
plates  gives  the  best  results.    One  of  these  consists  of  a  piece  of  wood,  deeply  grooved  on  one 
side.     The  other  is  a  thin,  perforated  sheet  of  hard  rubber. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  49 

25.  In  assembling,  a  rubber  separator  is  placed  on  either  side  of  each  positive  plate, 
and  a  wood  separator  is  placed  between  each  pair  of  plates,  with  its  grooved  side  against  the 
negative  plate. 

27.  The  group  of  positive  and  negative  plates  is  of  such  dimensions  as  to  practically 
fill  the  rubber  jar  in  which  it  is  finally  placed,  leaving  only  the  pores  in  the  plates,  the  spaces 
in  the  separators,  and  a  small  space  above  and  below  the  plates  to  be  filled  with  the  solution 
of  acid  and  water. 

28.  The  durability  of  a  storage  battery  depends  first  upon  the  care  with  which  the 
little  details  of  design  and  construction  are  worked  out,  and  after  that  upon  conditions  under 
which  the  battery  is  kept  in  proper  condition  to  perform  its  functions  efficiently. 

29.  We  have  already  noted  that  a  cell  of  a  storage  battery  delivers  current  at  the  rate 
of  two  volts,  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  cell.    Therefore,  if  we  require  a  current  with  a  force 
of  six  volts  we  must  use  three  cells. 

30.  The  size  and  number  of  plates  in  each  cell  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  current 
needed  and  the  length  of  time  during  which  it  is  required.    If  only  three  cells  were  required 
to  light  one  small  lamp  for  a  short  length  of  tune,  we  could  use  very  small  cells. 

31.  However,  if  we  require  current  to  crank  a  large  automobile  engine  for  any  consid- 
erable period  of  tune,  we  should  require  more  surface  in  our  plates,  and  should  use  cells  con- 
taining quite  a  number  of  fairly  large  plates. 

32.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  increase  the  capacity  of  a  battery  so  that  for  a  given  weight 
it  will  discharge  a  proportionately  large  amount  of  current.     This  may  be  done  by  using  a 
large  number  of  very  thin  plates.    Or,  the  rubber  separators  may  be  discarded,  leaving  room 
in  the  cell  for  a  greater  number  of  plates. 

33.  Often  both  thase  means  are  used,  and  a  battery  is  built  having  very  thin  plates 
with  only  wood  separators  between  them.    Naturally,  the  thin  plates  have  a  shorter  life  than 
the  thicker  ones,  and  durability  is  further  sacrificed  when  the  rubber  separators  are  omitted. 

34.  Any  storage  battery  manufacturer  who  knows  his  business  can  build  batteries  with 
either  thin  or  thick  plates,  and  either  with  or  without  rubber  separators. 

35.  It  has  been  repeatedly  asserted  that  excessive  overcharging  does  no  harm  to  the 
battery,  but  this  statement  has  never  been  made  by  a  reputable  storage  battery  manufacturer. 
We  need  only  pause  for  a  moment  to  consider  the  action  in  a  battery  to  be  convinced  of  the 
damage  resulting  from  overcharging. 

36.  So  long  as  the  battery  is  not  fully  charged,  there  is  a  ready  combination  between 
the  elements  of  the  solution  and  those  of  the  plates.    When  the  battery  is  fully  charged,  there 
is  no  longer  any  material  in  the  plates  with  which  the  elements  of  the  solution  may  combine, 
and  they  must  be  discharged  from  the  solution  in  the  form  of  gas  bubbles,  exactly  as  the 
gases  were  released  in  the  first  experiment  described. 

37.  This  bubbling  or  "boiling,"  as  it  is  called,  results  first  in  rapid  evaporation  of  the 
water  of  the  solution,  and  if  the  water  is  not  renewed  frequently  to  replace  this  evaporation, 
the  plates  will  be  exposed  to  the  air  with  harmful  results. 

38.  The  second  and  more  serious  effect  of  this  boiling  action  is  to  loosen  the  active 
material  from  the  plates.     This  material  crumbles  away  and  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar. 
Under  these  conditions  the  battery  will  soon  become  useless.    A  battery  which  under  proper 
charging  conditions  might  last  for  fhree  years  could  very  easily  be  put  out  of  commission  in 
three  months  by  continued  overcharging. 

39.  First.     The  storage  battery  is  a  device  in  which  certain  chemical  compounds  are 
produced  when  it  is  charged;  that  is,  when  a  current  of  electricity  is  passed  through  it  from 
an  outside  source,  and  that  this  chemical  action  reverses  when  the  battery  discharges  and 
gives  back  electric  current  and  the  original  compounds  are  reformed. 

40.  Second.     The  essentials  of  all  lead  storage  batteries  are  the  same,  and  batteries 
differ  only  in  the  chemical  construction  of  their  parts. 


50  INFORMATION 

41.  Third.     While  the  capacity  of  a  battery  may  be  increased  by  various  means,  this 
result  can  only  be  accomplished  at  the  expense  of  durability. 

42.  Fourth.     Satisfactory  service  from  a  storage  battery  depends  largely  upon  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  charged. 

THE  STORAGE  BATTERY 

1.  Note.     The  gravity  readings,  proportions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water  used  in  mak- 
ing electrolyte,  height  of  solution  in  cells,  charging  rates  and  material  of  battery  jars  in  the 
following  information  pertains  to  the  storage  battery,  as  applied  to  automobile  electric  sys- 
tems; other  information  pertains  to  all  lead  plate  batteries. 

2.  A  storage  battery  is  composed  of  rubber  jars,  lead  plates,  plate  separators,  and 
electrolyte. 

3.  The  plates  are  made  by  first  casting  lead  into  grids.    Then  a  composition  made  of 
lead  oxides  is  pasted  into  these  grids.    This  composition  is  better  known  as  active  material. 
This  active  material  sets  hard  like  cement  when  dried. 

4.  After  the  active  material  is  compressed  into  the  grids  they  go  through  an  electro 
chemical  process  that  converts  that  of  the  positive  plates  into  brown  peroxide  of  lead  and  that 
of  the  negative  plates  into  spongy  metallic  lead. 

5.  The  jars  are  made  of  rubber  to  prevent  the  acid  from  affecting  them.    There  are 
always  three  cells  in  a  6-volt  storage  battery.    These  jars  are  so  constructed  that  the  plates 
rest  on  a  stool  about  one  inch  from  the  bottom  of  the  jar.     This  space  is  for  the  sediment 
that  will  accumulate  as  the  battery  wears. 

6.  The  plate  separators  are  made  of  either  wood  or  hard  rubber.     They  are  used  to 
separate  the  plates  of  different  polarities  from  each  other.    Also  to  prevent  foreign  substances 
from  causing  short  circuits. 

7.  The  electrolyte  or  exciting  fluid  is  made  by  mixing  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid 
with  distilled  water  in  definite  proportions. 

8.  The  gravity  of  water  is  1.000  and  that  of  acid  is  1.840.    Mixing  of  2  parts  of  acid  with 
5  parts  of  water  should  make  electrolyte  of  about  1.300  gravity. 

9.  To  make  electrolyte,  first  secure  an  earthen  vessel  of  a  desired  size.    Pour  the  dis- 
tilled water  into  the  vessel  and  then  add  the  acid.    Be  sure  to  add  the  acid  slowly  and  stir  all 
the  time  it  is  being  added. 

10.  We  would  suggest  the  following:    If  7  gallons  of  solution  is  to  be  made,  first  pour 
5  gallons  of  water  into  the  vessel  and  then  add  the  acid  as  follows,  until  two  gallons  have 
been  added;  pour  one  quart  of  the  acid  into  the  water  slowly  and  stir  while  so  doing;  let  set 
15  minutes,  and  then  add  another  quart  in  the  same  way. 

11.  Continue  this  operation  until  the  two  gallons  of  acid  have  been  added.    Always  be 
sure  to  use  only  distilled  water  and  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid.    When  the  above  solution 
is  cooled  the  gravity  should  be  about  1.300. 

12.  If  it  is  above  this  a  little  water  should  be  added,  and  if  below  1.300  a  little  acid 
should  be  added.    Be  sure  that  the  solution  is  in  a  cooled  condition  when  testing  the  gravity. 

13.  Any  water  used  in  a  battery  should  be  distilled.     Water  contains  minerals,  salts, 
etc.,  which  are  injurious  to  the  active  materials.    Distilled  water  for  a  storage  battery  should 
be  kept  in  bottles  and  corked  up  tight. 

14.  The  true  gravity  of  the  solution  in  a  storage  battery  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
charging  the  battery  until  the  gravity  of  the  solution  has  ceased  to  rise  for  a  period  of  at 
least  two  hours, 

16.  As  a  battery  is  being  charged  the  acid  is  forced  out  of  the  plates  and  mixes  with 
the  water  and  the  gravity  of  the  solution  increases.  As  a  battery  is  being  discharged  the 
acid  leaves  the  water  and  goes  into  the  plates  and  the  gravity  of  the  solution  decreases. 


51 

16.  When  the  battery  is  in  a  discharged  condition  the  solution  will  test  about  1.150. 
It  should  not  be  used  when  the  gravity  is  this  low,  but  should  be  given  a  charge  at  once. 

17.  If  the  gravity  of  the  solution  in  a  battery  is  low,  add  only  distilled  water  until  the 
plates  are  covered  from  ^i"  to  }4"  and  then  give  it  a  charge.     Charge  until  the  gravity  of 
the  solution  ceases  to  rise  for  a  period  of  at  least  two  hours.    At  this  time  the  gravity  of  the 
solution  should  test  between  1.275  and  1.300. 

18.  The  rate  a  storage  battery  should   be   charged  from  an  outside  source  depends 
entirely  upon  the  size  of  a  battery  and  state  of  charge.    If  the  rated  capacity  of  a  battery  is 
80  ampere  hours  it  should  be  charged  as  follows:    When  the  gravity  of  the  solution  is  below 
1.150  or  over  1.250,  it  should  be  charged  at  5%  of  the  rated  capacity,  or  4  amperes. 

19.  If  the  gravity  of  the  solution  is  between  1.150  and  1.250,  it  should  be  charged  at 
10%  of  the  rated  capacity,  or  8  amperes.     The  above  are  safe  rates  for  any  good  battery. 

20.  Never  add  pure  acid  to  a  battery  under  any  condition.    Never  add  new  electrolyte 
to  a  battery  when  it  is  in  a  discharged  condition.    If  the  solution  in  a  battery  tests  low  it  is 
not  a  sure  indicat  ion  that  the  battery  needs  electrolyte. 

21.  The  cells  should  be  filled  to  the  proper  height  with  clean,  distilled  water  and  then 
put  on  charge  and  charged  at  the  proper  rate  until  the  gravity  ceases  to  rise  for  about  two 
hours.    If  the  gravity  fails  to  rise  to  1.275  some  of  the  old  solution  should  be  taken  out  and 
replaced  with  new  electrolyte  of  a  1.300  gravity. 

22.  While  on  charge  and  nearing  a  fully  charged  condition  a  single  cell  of  a  storage 
battery  will  give  off  a  pressure  of  2.5  volts.    A  3-cell  battery  under  the  same  condition  will 
give  off  a  pressure  of  7.5  volts.     When  the  charging  is  ceased   the  pressure  of  a  single  cell 
will  go  back  to  2.2  volts,  or  6.6  volts  for  a  3-cell  battery. 

23.  The  color  of  the  positive  plates  is  brown  and  that  of  the  negative  plates  is  gray  or 
lead  color.    When  a  storage  battery  is  hi  a  fully  charged  condition  there  is  no  electricity  in 
it.    Passing  a  current  of  electricity  through  a  storage  battery  causes  energy  to  be  stored  up 
in  a  chemical  form  which  can  be  converted  into  an  electrical  form  when  desired. 

24.  Distilled  water  is  made  by  boiling  water,  producing  steam,  cooling  the  steam  which 
returns  to  water.    Steam  that  is  cooling  must  not  come  in  contact  with  metals  other  than 
lead.     Never  use  boiled  water  in  a  battery. 

25.  When  water  is  boiled*  the  part  that  is  pure  rises  as  steam  and  escapes,  and  the  part 
that  remains  is  the  impurities,  which  are  injurious  to  the  active  material  in  the  plates  of  the 
battery. 

26.  Remember,  in  making  electrolyte  for  a  storage  battery  that  2  and  5  do  not  make 
7.    If  2  gallons  of  acid  are  mixed  with  5  gallons  of  water  it  will  not  make  7  gallons  of  solution. 
In  mixing  the  acid  and  water  heat  is  produced  and  some  of  the  water  evaporates,  causing 
quantity  to  diminish. 

27.  If  there  was  no  evaporation  in  mixing  2  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  with  5  gallons  of 
water  the  gravity  of  this  mixture  would  be  1.240.    Enough  water  evaporates  while  the  parts 
are  being  mixed  to  cause  the  gravity  of  the  solution  to  be  about  1.300  in  a  cooled  condition. 
When  making  electrolyte  be  sure  to  pour  the  acid  into  the  water  slowly.    It  is  very  dangerous 
to  pour  the  water  into  the  acid. 

28.  If  the  gravity  of  the  solution  in  a  battery  tests  1.300  it  is  an  indication  that  the 
battery  is  fully  charged.    If  some  one  has  added  electrolyte  instead  of  water  to  replace  evap- 
oration the  1.300  test  will  be  misleading. 

29.  To  be  sure  of  the  true  gravity  keep  the  battery  on  charge  until  the  gravity  has 
ceased  to  rise  for  two  hours.    Never  let  the  plates  remain  exposed  to  the  ah*  for  any  length 
of  time. 

30.  Distilled  water  should  be  added  to  a  battery  in  use,  at  least  twice  a  month.     In 
cold  weather  never  add  water  to  a  battery  and  let  the  battery  set  in  a  cold  place  unless  it 
has  been  given  a  charge  after  the  water  was  added. 

31.  Water  is  lighter  than  electrolyte  and  will  remain  on  top  and  freeze  if  not  mixed 


52  INFORMATION 

with  the  electrolyte.    The  terminals  of  a  storage  battery  should  be  kept  tight  and  free  from 
corrosion. 

32.  If  the  terminals  of  a  storage  battery  show  signs  of  corrosion,  the  corrosion  should 
be  removed  at  once.    Take  all  bolts,  nuts,  washers,  and  straps  off  that  can  be  removed  readily 
and  clean  them  with  a  strong  solution  of  cooking  soda  and  water. 

33.  Put  all  parts  taken  off  the  battery  into  soda  solution  and  set  aside  for  half  an  hour. 
Then  use  a  short,  stiff  brush  and  remove  all  signs  of  corrosion.    Also  clean  terminal  posts  of 
the  battery,  being  careful  not  to  let  the  soda  solution  get  into  the  battery. 

34.  Wipe  all  parts  dry  and  give  them  a  good  coat  of  vaseline.     After  these  parts  are 
assembled  another  coat  of  vaseline  should  be  given  them.    If  terminals  are  kept  coated  with 
vaseline,  corrosion  will  not  occur. 

35.  Use  a  filling  syringe  when  adding  water  to  a  battery.    Be  sure  that  the  top  of  the 
battery  is  dry  and  free  from  foreign  substance,  as  such  will  cause  short  circuits  between  the 
terminals  and  the  cells.    A  fully  charged  battery  testing  about  1.300  will  freeze  at  about  90 
degrees  below  zero,  and  when  discharged  down  to  1.150  it  will  freeze  at  about  10  degrees 
above  zero. 

36.  Keep  the  battery  and  its  compartment  dry  in  outer  appearance.     The  wearing  of 
a  battery  causes  sediment  to  accumulate  in  the  bottom  of  the  cells  and  must  be  removed. 

37.  If  sediment  is  high  enough  to  short  circuit  across  the  lower  ends  of  the  plates  it 
will  cause  the  battery  to  overheat,  gas  excessively,  gravity  will  rise  slowly,  and  when  the 
current  is  cut  off  for  charging  the  voltage  of  each  cell  will  drop  below  2.2  volts  per  cell  and 
continue  to  drop.     The  gravity  of  the  solution  will  continue  to  drop,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  battery  will  be  discharged  whether  used  or  not. 

38.  To  remove  sediment  from  a  battery  fill  each  cell  with  water  to  the  proper  height 
and  place  on  charge.    Charge  until  gravity  in  all  cells  ceases  to  rise  for  two  hours.    Remove 
plates,  set  plates  in  earthen  vessel  and  cover  with  water.     Clean  sediment  out  of  cells  and 
wipe  them  dry.     Fill  cells  about  Y*  full  of  new  electrolyte. 

39.  Then  set  the  plates  into  the  cells,  one  set  at  a  time,  and  immediately  cover  with 
new  electrolyte.    Be  careful  not  to  expose  to  air  long.    Discharge  plates  back  to  a  point 
where  the  gravity  of  the  solution  tests  1.200.    Then  charge  until  gravity  in  all  cells  ceases  to 
rise  for  two  hours. 

40.  Voltage  tests  of  storage  batteries  can  be  made  to  snow  the  condition  of  batteries 
very  accurately,  provided  they  are  made  in  the  proper  way. 

41.  Voltage  tests  with  the  battery  idle  may  be  very  misleading.     A  storage  battery 
may  be  three-fourths  discharged  and  while  idle  show  a  voltage  almost  equal  to  that  of  a  fully 
charged  battery. 

42.  The  voltage  of  a  battery  in  this  condition  will  drop  as  soon  as  current  is  taken  from 
it.    The  greater  the  rate  at  which  you  attempt  to  take  current  from  the  battery,  the  greater 
the  drop  in  voltage.    If  a  few  lamps  are  turned  on  the  voltage  drop  may  be  comparatively 
small,  but  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  crank  the  engine,  just  as  soon  as  the  circuit  is  completed 
by  closing  the  starting  switch  the  voltage  drop  will  be  excessive. 

43.  Remember  this :   A  storage  battery  may  be  almost  discharged  and  while  idle  show 
a  voltage  of  two  volts  per  cell,  6  volts  for  a  3-cell  battery,  or  32  volts  for  a  16-cell  battery. 
If  an  attempt  is  made  to  crank  the  engine,  the  voltagg  of  this  battery  may  drop  as  low  as 
4  volts  for  a  3-cell  battery  or  20  volts  or  less  for  a  16-cell  battery,  this  being  due  to  the  at- 
tempted high  rate  of  discharge. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  53 

BATTERY  INSTRUCTION 

1.  A  single  cell  of  a  storage  battery  is  composed  of  a  glass  jar,  lead  plates,  plate  sep- 
aratorS;  and  electrolyte. 

2.  The  cells  of  a  storage  battery  are  connected  in  series.     This  method  of  connecting 
is  general  with  Automobile  batteries. 

3.  The  voltage  of  a  fully-charged  cell  of  a  battery  is  about  2.2  volts. 

4.  While  a  battery  is  in  charge  the  voltage  of  a  single  cell  will  rise  as  high  as  2.5  volts. 

5.  The  terminals  of  a  storage  battery  are  marked  so  as  to  distinguish  the  polarity. 

6.  The  positive  terminal  is  marked  ("+")  or  "Pos."    The  negative  terminal  is  marked 
("— ")  or  "Xeg." 

7.  If  the  marks  have  been  removed,  a  voltmeter  may  be  used  to  distinguish  the  positive 
from  the  negative  terminal. 

8.  The  composition  of  the  active  material  in  the  positive  plates  is  principally  red  lead, 
and  that  of  the  negative  plates  is  litharge. 

9.  The  plates  are  made  by  first  casting  a  lead  alloy  into  the  form  of  grids,  and  then 
compressing  active  material  into  them. 

10.  The  plates  are  then  allowed  to  dry.    Active  material  in  drjung  sets  hard  like  cement. 

11.  After  the  plates  are  dried  they  are  taken  through  an  electro  chemical  process,  which 
converts  the  active  material  of  the  positive  plates  into  brown  peroxide  of  lead,  and  that  of 
the  negative  plates  into  spongy  metallic  lead. 

12.  The  color  of  the  positive  plates  is  brown,  and  the  negative  plates  is  gray  or  lead 
color. 

13.  The  jars  are  usually  made  of  rubber  or  some  good  composition. 

14.  The  jars  are  sometimes  made  of  glass.    This  applies  particularly  to  batteries  used 
for  stationary  work. 

15.  Battery  jars  are  made  of  rubber  or  glass,  so  acids  will  not  affect  them. 

16.  In  the  wear  of  a  storage  battery  the  active  material  slowly  wears  away  and  lodges 
in  the  bottom  of  the  jars.    This  is  called  sediment. 

17.  The  sediment  chamber  is  always  made  large  enough  to  contain  the  sediment  that 
will  accumulate. 

18.  The  separators  of  a  storage  battery  are  made  of  either  rubber  or  wood.    In  some 
batteries  both  wood  and  rubber  are  used. 

19.  These  separators  are  placed  between  the  plates  of  different  polarity  to  prevent 
them  from  getting  together  and  short-circuiting. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  single  cell  of  a  storage  battery  composed  of? 

2.  How  are  the  cells  connected? 

3.  What  is  the  voltage  of  a  single  cell  when  fully  charged? 

4.  How  high  will  voltage  rise  while  on  charge? 

5.  Are  the  terminals  of  a  battery  marked? 

6.  What  are  the  marks? 

7.  If  the  marks  have  been  removed,  how  can  it  be  tested  for  polarity? 

8.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  active  material? 

9.  How  are  the  plates  made? 

10.  Is  the  active  material  soft  or  hard  when  dried? 

11.  What  is  done  after  the  plates  are  dried? 

12.  What  are  the  colors  of  the  plates? 

13.  What  are  the  jars  made  of? 

14.  Where  are  glass  jars  used? 


54  INFORMATION 

15.  Why  are  they  made  of  rubber  or  glass? 

16.  What  is  sediment? 

18.  What  are  separators  made  of? 

19.  What  are  they  for? 

20.  The  solution  in  a  storage  battery  is  called  electrolyte. 

21.  Electrolyte  is  a  mixture  of  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid  and  distilled  water. 

22.  The  proportions  of  acid  to  use  in  making  electrolyte  is  two  parts  of  acid  to  five  of 
water. 

23.  Be  sure  that  the  water  is  distilled  and  that  the  acid  is  chemically  pure. 

24.  When  making  electrolyte,  measure  the  parts  in  it  by  volume  and  not  by  weight. 
26.     Use  a  glass  or  earthen  vessel  to  mix  the  solution  in.    Never  use  metal  other  than 

lead. 

26.  Always  place  the  water  in  the  vessel  first  and  then  add  the  acid.    Never  add  water 
to  the  acid. 

27.  Add  the  acid  slowly,  being  sure  that  the  proper  proportions  are  used. 

28.  If  acid  was  added  too  fast  there  would  be  excessive  heating,  which  may  cause  the 
vessel  to  be  cracked. 

29.  When  adding  the  acid,  always  stir  the  solution.     This  will  assist  in  preventing 
overheating  as  well  as  thoroughly  mixing  the  acid  and  the  water. 

30.  Use  a  clean  wooden  paddle  to  stir  with.    Be  careful  not  to  use  a  piece  of  wood  that 
has  been  stained  or  painted. 

31.  The  gravity  of  water  is  1.    It  is  usually  marked  1.000.    In  fact,  gravity  is  based 
upon  the  weight  of  water. 

32.  The  gravity  of  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid  is  1.840.    This  means  that  a  pint  of 
chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid  is  1.840  times  as  heavy  as  a  pint  of  distilled  water. 

33.  Sulphuric  acid  is  a  mixture  composed  of  sulphur,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  in  definite 
proportions. 

34.  In  the  operation  of  a  storage  battery  the  acid  does  not  evaporate,  and  none  will  be 
lost  unless  a  battery  is  upset  or  is  overcharged  excessively  or  too  fast. 

35.  The  water  used  in  mixing  electrolyte  will  evaporate  slowly  as  the  battery  is  charged 
or  used. 

36.  To  replace  evaporation  in  a  storage  battery,  always  use  distilled  water  if  it  is  pos- 
sible to  get  it. 

37.  Use  only  distilled  water  in  making  electrolyte.    Keep  the  water  for  this  purpose  in 
glass  jars,  and  keep  it  clean. 

38.  Never  use  electrolyte  to  replace  evaporation.    If  it  is  used,  the  gravity  of  the  solu- 
tion will  be  too  high  and  cause  injury  to  the  plates. 

39.  Rain  water  may  be  used  in  case  of  emergency.    If  rain  water  is  used  it  must  be  pure. 
It  must  not  come  in  contact  with  metals  of  any  kind. 

40.  Never  use  boiled  water  to  replace  evaporation.    Boiled  water  contains  impurities 
that  are  injurious. 

41.  Distilled  water  is  made  by  boiling  water,  catching  the  steam  that  rises  and  cooling 
it  without  coming  in  contact  with  metals  other  than  lead. 

QUESTIONS 

20.  What  is  the  solution  in  a  battery  called? 

21.  What  is  electrolyte? 

22.  What  are  the  proportions? 

24.     Are  the  parts  measured  by  volume  or  weight? 

25-     What  kind  of  a  vessel  should  be  used  in  making  electrolyte? 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  55 

26.  When  making  electrolyte,  which  part  is  added  to  the  other? 

27.  How  fast  should  the  solution  be  added  to  the  other? 

28.  Why  so  slow? 

29.  What  else  should  be  done  while  mixing? 

30.  What  should  be  used  to  stir  the  mixture? 

31.  What  is  the  gravity  of  water? 

32.  What  is  the  gravity  of  chemically  pure  sulphuric  acid? 

33.  What  is  sulphuric  acid? 

34.  Does  acid  evaporate? 
35-  Does  water  evaporate? 

36.  What  should  be  used  to  replace  evaporation  in  a  battery? 

37.  What  kind  of  water  should  be  used  in  making  electrolyte? 

38.  Why  not  use  electrolyte  to  replace  evaporation? 

39.  Can  rain  water  be  used? 

40.  Can  boiled  water  be  used? 

41.  How  is  distilled  water  made? 

42.  Distilled  water  may  be  purchased  from  distilleries  or  local  dealers,  but  should  be 
kept  in  the  container  (glass)  hi  which  it  comes. 

43.  Never  add  pure  acid  to  a  battery.     This  practice  has  been  followed  often,  with  a 
result  that  the  battery  life  was  very  short. 

44.  If  a  battery  is  put  on  charge  and  charged  until  the  gravity  in  all  cells  ceases  to 
rise  for  two  hours  and  the  gravity  is  too  low,  new  electrolyte  should  be  added. 

45.  When  a  battery  is  fully  charged  the  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  should  be  between 
1.275  and  1.300. 

46.  There  is  only  one  sure  method  of  telling  when  a  battery  is  fully  charged.    That  is, 
to  put  the  battery  on  charge  and  charge  it  for  a  period  of  two  hours  after  the  gravity  in  all 
cells  ceases  to  rise. 

47.  If  the  gravity  is  too  low  at  this  tune,  remove  some  of  the  old  solution  and  add  1.300 
electrolyte. 

48.  If  the  gravity  is  too  high,  remove  some  of  the  solution  and  add  only  distilled  water. 

49.  The  amount  of  solution  to  take  out  of  a  battery  in  either  case  depends  upon  the 
lowness  or  highness  of  the  gravity.    Take  a  little  out  at  a  time  and  use  judgment. 

50.  If  new  electrolyte  has  been  added  to  replace  evaporation,  the  gravity  will  be  too  high. 

51.  A  storage  battery  is  charged  by  passing  a  current  of  electricity  through  it  con- 
tinuously in  the  same  direction. 

52.  We  do  not  store  electricity  in  a  battery.    When  a  battery  is  fully  charged  there  is 
no  electricity  in  it. 

63.     The  flow  of  current  through,  a  battery  causes  energy  to  be  stored  in  a  chemical 
form  which  can  be  converted  into  an  electrical  form  when  desired. 

54.  The  rate  a  battery  should  be  charged  from  an  outside  source  depends  entirely 
upon  its  condition  and  state  of  charge. 

55.  As  an  example,  say  we  have  an  80-ampere  hour  battery.     If  the  gravity  of  the 
electrolyte  is  below  1.150  or  over  1.250,  charge  at  5%  of  the  rated  capacity,  which  is  4  amperes. 
If  the  gravity  is  between  1.150  and  1.250,  charge  at  10%  of  the  rated  capacity,  which  is  8 
amperes. 

56.  The  reason  for  these  different  rates  is  that  when  a  battery  is  real  low,  a  high  charg- 
ing rate  would  buckle  the  plates  and  when  nearly  charged  too  high  a  rate  may  cause  loss  of 
active  material. 

57.  Distilled  water  should  be  added  to  a  battery  often  enough  that  the  plates  are  never 
exposed  to  the  air. 


56 

58.  The  length  of  time  between  intervals  depends  upon  temperatures  and  treatment  of 
the  battery. 

59.  Ordinarily  every  two  weeks  is  sufficient.     In  summertime  it  may  be  necessary  to 
add  water  weekly. 

60.  Enough  water  should  be  added  to  keep  the  plates  covered  at  all  times. 

61.  When  adding  water,  use  a  filling  syringe,  and  be  careful  never  to  spill  water  over 
the  top  of  the  battery. 

62.  Water  on  top  of  a  battery  will  cause  dirt  to  accumulate. 

63.  This  accumulation  of  foreign  substances  will  cause  short  circuits  between  the  ter- 
minals of  the  battery. 

64.  If  water  is  added  in  wintertime,  always  charge  the  battery  immediately  afterwards. 

65.  Water  is  lighter  than  the  electrolyte,  and  may  lay  on  top  and  freeze 

66.  Charging  the  battery  causes  the  water  to  mix  with  the  electrolyte. 

QUESTIONS 

42.  How  should  distilled  water  be  kept? 

43.  When  should  acid  be  added  to  a  battery? 

44.  When  should  electrolyte  be  added? 

45.  Between  what  points  should  the  gravity  rise  when  fully  charged? 

46.  How  do  we  know  when  a  battery  is  fully  charged? 

47.  What  should  be  done  if  gravity  is  too  low  at  this  time? 

48.  What  should  be  done  if  the  gravity 'is  too  high? 

49.  How  much  solution  should  be  taken  out  of  a  battery  in  either  case? 

50.  What  would  cause  the  gravity  to  be  too  high? 

51.  How  is  a  storage  battery  charged? 

52.  Do  we  store  electricity  in  a  battery? 

53.  What  is  done? 

54.  How  fast  should  a  battery  be  charged  from  outside  source? 

55.  What  would  be  a  safe  rate? 

56.  Why  this  difference  in  rates? 

57.  How  often  should  water  be  added? 

58.  How  much  time  between  intervals? 

59.  What  would  be  a  safe  time? 

60.  How  much  water  should  be  added? 

61.  How  should  water  be  added? 

62.  Why? 

63.  What  effect  will  water  have  on  the  top  of  a  battery? 

64.  When  should  water  be  added  to  a  battery  in  winter? 

65.  Why  not  any  time,  if  the  solution  is  low? 

66.  What  does  charging  do  to  the  water? 

67.  Charging  or  discharging  a  storage  battery  causes  the  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  to 
change. 

68.  When  a  battery  is  being  charged,  acid  is  leaving  the  plates  and  mixing  with  the  solu- 
tion and  the  gravity  rises. 

69.  When  a  battery  is  being  discharged,  the  acid  is  leaving  the  water  and  going  into 
the  plates  and  the  gravity  drops. 

70.  When  the  gravity  of  the  solution  in  a  battery  drops  to  1.150  it  is  nearly  discharged. 

71.  There  is  little  danger  of  a  battery  freezing  if  it  is  kept  charged  up  properly.    It  will 
freeze  if  it  is  only  partly  charged  or  in  a  discharged  condition. 

72.  The  freezing  of  a  batterv  also  depends  upon  the  temperature  as  well  as  the  state 
of  charge. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  57 

73.  If  the  gravity  of  the  solution  is  up  to  1.300  it  will  freeze  at  about  90  degrees  below 
zero. 

74.  If  gravity  is  down  to  1.150  a  battery  will  freeze  at  10  degrees  above  zero. 

75.  Gravity  tests  should  be  made  when  the  battery  is  being  charged  or  discharged. 

76.  If  the  voltage  of  a  battery  falls  rapidly  when  charging  is  stopped  and  continues  to 
fall- until  below  2  volts  per  cell,  it  indicates  a  short  circuit,  which  quite  likely  is  due  to  sedi- 
ment being  high  in  the  sediment  chamber. 

77.  The  voltage  of  a  storage  battery  is  a  good  indication  of  state  of  charge  if  these  tests 
are  made  in  the  proper  way. 

78.  To  test  for  bad  cells,  operate  the  electric  starter  and  test  each  cell  separately  while 
starter  is  on.    If  part  of  cells  are  low  it  indicates  bad  or  weak  cells.    If  all  are  low,  the  trouble 
is  generally  due  to  discharge. 

79.  Type  S.  1.  hydrometers,  made  by  The  Electric  Storage  Battery  Company,  of  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  are  correct  and  can  always  be  relied  upon. 

80.  Many  makes  of  hydrometers  are  purely  guessing  devices,  and  they  vary  from  20% 
to  30%  in  their  readings. 

81.  An  ammeter  must  not  be  used  to  test  a  storage  battery. 

82.  Connecting  an  ammeter  across  the  terminals  of  a  battery  is  the  same  as  short  cir- 
cuiting the  battery.    The  meter  will  quickly  be  burned  out. 

83.  When  a  battery  is  being  charged,  acid  fumes  arise  and  often  cause  corrosion  of  the 
battery  terminals. 

84.  Corrosion  will  be  noted  by  the.  formation  of  a  greenish  deposit  on  the  terminals. 
It  may  be  necessary  to  take  them  apart  to  detect  it. 

85.  Corrosion  of  battery  terminals  causes  high  resistance  connections. 

86.  This  will  cause  the  battery  to  be  slow  to  charge,  and  cranking  will  be  slow,  due  to 
the  high  resistance  in  the  battery  terminal  connections. 

QUESTIONS 

67.  What  causes  the  gravity  of  a  battery  to  change? 

68.  Why  when  on  charge? 

69.  Why  when  on  discharge? 

70.  What  is  the  gravity  of  a  battery  in  practically  a  discharged  condition? 

71.  Will  a  battery  freeze? 

72.  At  what  temperature? 

73.  At  what  temperature  when  fully  charged? 

74.  At  what  temperature  when  gravity  is  about  1.150  (about  discharged)? 

75.  When  should  gravity  test  be  made? 

76.  What  is  wrong  if  the  voltage  of  a  battery  falls  rapidly  when  charging  is  stopped  and 
continues  to  fall  until  below  2  volts? 

77.  Is  the  voltage  a  sure  indication  of  state  of  charge? 

78.  How  should  tests  be  made  to  detect  bad  cells? 

79.  What  kind  of  hydrometer  is  best? 

80.  Are  all  hydrometers  good? 

81.  Can  a  battery  be  tested  with  an  ammeter? 

82.  Why  not? 

83.  What  effect  has  battery  fumes  on  terminals? 

84.  How  can  corrosion  be  detected? 

85.  What  is  the  effect  of  corrosion? 

86.  What  effect  has  corrosion  on  operation? 

87.  All  battery  containers  should  be  ventilated  so  the  fumes  can  escape;  otherwise 
they  have  a  tendency  to  cause  corrosion. 


58  INFORMATION 

88.  A  strong  solution  made  of  cooking  soda  and  water  is  best  to  use  in  loosening  and 
removing  corrosion. 

89.  Use  about  6  tablespoons  of  cooking  soda  to  one-half  pint  of  water.    Stir  well  before 
using. 

90.  To  remove  corrosion,  remove  all  the  nuts,  bolts,  and  other  parts  possible  and  place 
them  in  the  cleaning  solution. 

91.  Allow  these  parts  to  remain  in  the  solution  for  about  one-half  hour. 

92.  This  does  not  remove  the  corrosion.     It  only  loosens  it  so  it  can  be  removed. 

93.  Then  use  a  short,  stiff  brush.    It  may  be  necessary  to  scrape  the  parts  to  get  it  all  off. 

94.  Then  dry  the  parts  thoroughly  and  coat  with  vaseline  or  cup  grease. 

95.  To  clean  the  terminal  posts  of  the  battery,  apply  the  solution  to  them  with  a  brush, 
being  careful  not  to  get  this  solution  in  the  battery.    Then  scrape  or  brush  them  until  the 
signs  of  corrosion  are  gone. 

96.  Then  dry  and  coat  each  terminal  well  with  vaseline. 

97.  Then  assemble  these  parts  complete-  and  give  them  a  good  coat  of  vaseline. 

98.  After  this  coat  the  terminals  about  twice  a  year  with  vaseline,  and  corrosion  will 
not  affect  them. 

99.  The  vaseline  prevents  acid  or  acid  fumes  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  terminals 
and  prevents  corrosion. 

100.  The  terminal  parts  of  a  new  battery  should  be  removed  and  coated  well  with 
vaseline  and  assembled.    Then  give  another  coat  of  vaseline. 

101.  The  top  of  a  battery  should  be  kept  clean  and  free 'from  foreign  substances.    If 
not,  short  circuits  will  occur. 

102.  To  clean  the  top  of  a  battery,  use  the  same  solution  as  used  on  the  terminal  parts. 
Allow  to  remain  for  five  minutes,  then  wipe  dry. 

103.  Excessive  gassing  of  a  battery  while  on  charge  may  be  due  to  charging  too  fast, 
over-charging  excessively,  or  sediment  high  enough  in  the  sediment  chamber  to  short-circuit 
the  plates  at  the  lower  end. 

104.  Overheating  while  charging,  excessive  gassing,  or  slow  drop  in  voltage  is  an  indi- 
cation that  sediment  is  causing  short  circuits. 

105.  The  best  way  to  test  for  this  is  to  charge  battery  up  full.    Then  take  gravity  read- 
ing.   At  the  end  of  24  hours  take  another  reading.    Gravity  will  continue  to  drop  if  short 
circuits  are  the  cause. 

106.  It  is  always  best  to  communicate  with  the  maker  of  a  battery  or  one  of  its  service 
stations.    They  know  what  should  be  done. 

107.  Lack  of  charge  will  cause  sulphation  and  hardening  of  the  plates. 

QUESTIONS 

87.  Why  should  a  battery  be  ventilated? 

88.  What  should  be  used  to  loosen  corrosion? 

89.  How  much  of  each? 

90.  What  should  be  done  first  when  removing  corrosion? 

91.  How  long  should  they  remain  in  this  solution? 

92.  Does  this  remove  corrosion? 

93.  Then  how  should  it  be  removed? 

94.  What  should  be  done  next? 

95.  How  are  the  terminal  posts  cleaned? 

96.  What  should  be  done  then  to  the  posts? 

97.  After  the  parts  are  assembled,  what  should  be  done? 

98.  How  often  should  vaseline  be  applied? 

99.  What  is  the  use  of  vaseline? 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  59 

100.  What  should  be  done  to  the  terminals  of  a  new  battery? 

101.  What  will  result  if  foreign  substances  accumulate  on  the  top  of  a  battery? 

102.  How  should  they  be  removed? 

103.  What  will  cause  excessive  gassing  or  overheating  of  a  battery? 

104.  What  are  indicators  that  battery  plates  are  short  circuited? 

105.  How  would  be  a  good  way  to  test  this? 

106.  If  sediment  is  high,  what  should  be  done? 

107.  What  will  cause  sulphation  of  battery  plates? 

103.     Sulphation  seals  the  pores  of  the  active  materials  and  will  ruin  a  battery  if  it  is 
left  in  the  condition  for  long  periods. 

109.  Charging  a  battery  removes  the  sulphation  and  continues  to  remove  it  until  the 
battery  is  fully  charged. 

110.  If  a  battery  has  been  standing  in  a  discharged  condition  or  the  gravity  is  extremely 
low,  charge  at  an  extremely  low  rate  until  the  gravity  is  up  to  1.150.    Then  complete  the  charge 
in  the  usual  way. 

111.  If  a  battery  is  to  remain  idle  for  several  months,  it  should  be  filled  with  distilled 
water  the  proper  height  and  then  charged  full.     Should  be  given  a  refreshing  charge  once 
every  two  months  while  idle. 

112.  The  battery  should  be  charged  each  tune  when  giving  refreshing  charge  until 
gravity  is  up. 

113.  A  battery  out  of  service  may  be  charged  from  the  system  in  the  car  or  taken  out 
and  charged  from  an  outside  source,  if  desired. 

114.  If  a  battery  is  allowed  to  stand  in  a  discharged  condition  the  sulphation  on  the 
plates  will  harden.    It  will  be  hard  to  remove  by  charging,  which  will  cause  short  life  of  the 
battery. 

115.  The  term  "ampere  hour"  means  the  number  of  hours  a  battery  may  be  discharged 
at  a  one-ampere  rate.    A  100-ampere  hour  battery  will  supply  current  at  a  one-ampere  rate 
for  100  hours. 

116.  The  higher  the  rate  of  discharge  the  lower  the  efficiency.    If  the  same  battery  was 
to  be  discharged  at  a  100-Ampere  rate,  it  would  supply  current  only  15  or  20  minutes  at 
the  most. 

117.  Direct  current  must  always  be  used  to  charge  batteries. 

118.  Alternating  current  may  be  used  by  using  a  rectifier,  which  converts  it  into  direct 
current. 

119.  The  Edison  or  General  Electric  Co.  rectifiers  are  good  and  reliable. 

120.  To  test  for  polarity  of  charging  wires,  fill  a  glass  with  water,  add  salt  and  stir  well. 
Then  dip  the  ends  of  the  charging  wires  into  the  solution,  keeping  them  at  least  an  inch  apart. 
Bubbles  will  arise  from  the  negative  wire. 

121.  Then  connect  the  negative  wire  to  negative  terminal  of  the  battery  and  the  re- 
maining wire  to  the  positive  terminal  of  the  battery. 

122.  The  user  of  a  battery  should  keep  the  top  of  cells  dry  and  free  from  foreign  sub- 
stances.   Keep  fully  charged.    Keep  plates  covered  by  adding  only  distilled  water  at  frequent 
intervals,  and  note  that  terminals  do  not  corrode. 

QUESTIONS 

108.  What  effect  has  sulphation? 

109.  How  is  sulphation  removed? 

110.  At  what  rate? 

111.  What  should  be  done  to  a  battery  that  is  to  be  idle  for  months? 

113.  Should  the  battery  be  taken  out  of  the  car  to  charge  it? 

114.  Does  excessive  sulphating  shorten  the  life  of  a  battery? 


60  INFORMATION 

115.  Explain  the  term  "Ampere  hour." 

116.  Give  effects  of  high  discharge  rate. 

117.  What  kind  of  current  must  be  used  to  cnarge  batteries? 

118.  Can  alternating  current  be  used? 

119.  What  can  be  secured  to  rectify  this  current? 

120.  Give  method  of  finding  polarity  of  charging  wires. 

121.  How  should  charging  wires  be  connected  to  a  battery  in  reference  to  polarity? 
122  Give  user's  care  of  a  battery. 

MOTORS 

A  Motor  is  constructed  in  the  same  way  as  a  generator,  and  the  term  motor  does  not 
refer  to  the  way  the  machine  is  built,  but  to  the  way  in  which  it  is  used.  Any  direct  current 
machine  may  be  used  as  a  motor  or  generator.  If  a  machine  is  to  be  used  as  a  generator  only, 
it  will  be  designed  to  give  the  best  efficiency  for  that  purpose,  while  its  efficiency  as  a  motor 
might  be  very  low,  and  the  same  thing  applies  to  a  motor.  We  have  defined  a  motor  as  a 
machine  used  to  convert  electrical  energy  into  mechanical  energy.  This  means  that  we  re- 
verse the  order  of  things  found  in  a  generator,  and  instead  of  revolving  the  armature  by  use  of 
mechanical  energy  and  obtaining  electrical  energy  from  the  brushes,  we  introduce  electrical 
energy  at  the  brushes  and  so  cause  the  armature  to  revolve.  The  power  thus  delivered  by 
the  armature  can  be  used  in  any  desired  way,  as,  for  example,  when  we  connect  the  armature 
shaft  to  the  crank  shaft  of  an  automobile  engine  for  the  purpose  of  cranking.  This  connection 
is  made  by  means  of  gearing. 

GENERATORS 

Fig.  8,  page  61,  shows  two  magnets  placed  with  the  north  pole  of  the  one  toward  the 
south  pole  of  the  other,  showing  lines  of  force  flowing  from  the  North  Pole  to  the  South  Pole 
through  the  air,  and  we  will  use  a  simple  diagram  of  this  to  illustrate  the  principles  of  a  gen- 
erator. Fig.  9,  page  61,  shows  the  two  magnets  mounted  on  a  steel  frame  which  also  acts 
as  a  return  path  for  the  magnetism  or  lines  of  force.  Magnetism  flows  much  more  readily 
through  iron  or  steel  than  it  dpes  through  air.  By  introducing  the  steel  frame  we  have  cut 
down  considerable  resistance  to  the  flow  of  magnetism  by  shortening  the  path  through  the  air. 

Now,  if  we  take  a  loop  or  coil  of  insulated  wire  with  the  two  ends  connected  together, 
and  revolve  this  loop  or  coil  between  the  poles  of  the  magnets,  we  find  that  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity begins  to  flow,  or  is  said  to  be  generated  in,  the  coil  of  wire;  but  remember,  that  we 
must  have  magnetism  or  lines  of  force  flowing  from  one  pole  to  the  other,  and  we  also  must 
have  a  completely  closed  circuit  in  the  loop  or  coil  of  wire  before  any  current  will  be  generated 
in  it. 

Fig  10,  page  61,  shows  the  coil  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the  lines  of  force  are  flowing 
through  the  coil.  If  we  now  give  the  coil  one-half  revolution,  we  will  see  that  in  order  to  do 
so,  we  must  cut  all  the  lines  of  force  that  were  previously  flowing  through  the  coil,  and  the 
same  things  happen  every  half  revolution.  This  would  cause  the  current  generated  in  the 
coil  to  reverse  its  direction  of  flow  every  half  revolution,  which  means  that  we  would  have 
an  alternating  current  in  the  coil.  An  example  of  this  will  be  found  in  the  Magneto. 

In  order  to  obtain  current  or  continuous  current,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  that  is,  cur- 
rent flowing  continuously  in  the  same  direction,  and  not  alternating,  we  must  have  some 
means  of  preventing  the  alternate  reversal  of  the  flow  of  the  current  after  it  loaves  the  gen- 
erator. This  is  done  by  means  of  the  Commutator,  which  is  composed  of  a  number  of  seg- 
ments of  copper.  Fig.  11,  page  61,  shows  the  single  coil,  having  one  end  connected  to  seg- 
ment "A"  of  the  commutator,  and  the  other  end  connected  to  segment  "B."  Brush  "C"  is 
in  contact  with  segment  "A,"  and  brush  "D"  is  in  contact  with  segment  "B,"  the  circuit 
through  the  coil  being  completed  by  means  of  a  wire  connecting  brushes  "C"  and  "D,"  called 
the  external  circuit. 

The  direction  of  the  flow  of  current  in  the  coil  and  in  the  external  circuit  is  shown  by 
the  arrows.  Notice  that  it  flows  from  "B"  to  "A"  in  the  coil,  and  from  "C"  to  "D"  in  the 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY 


61 


L>x->-*-^~— 


If 


TO    EXTERNAL.    CIRCO/T 
.      /3 


C/RCUIT 


FIC. 


FIC.     /7 


62  INFORMATION 

external  circuit.  When  the  coil  has  revolved  through  half  a  revolution  segment  "A"  will  be 
under  brush  "D,"  while  segment  "B"  will  be  under  brush  "C,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  12,  page  61. 
This  means  that  although  the  current  has  reversed  its  direction  in  the  coil,  it  is  still  flowing 
in  the  same  direction  through  the  external  circuit  or  wire  joining  "C"  and  "D." 

Notice  that  current  flows  from  "A"  to  "B"  in  the  coil  during  this  half  revolution,  while 
the  direction  is  the  same  in  the  external  circuit  as  in  the  first  half  revolution,  that  is,  from 
"C"  to.  "D."  In  this  way  we  have  a  flow  of  current  always  in  the  same  direction  through  the 
external  circuit. 

An  armature  consists  of  a  steel  shaft  upon  which  are  placed  a  number  of  iron  disks,  slotted 
out  to  receive  a  number  of  coils  similar  to  the  one  described,  and  these  coils  are  connected 
to  the  segments  of  the  commutator,  which  is  also  mounted  on  the  same  shaft.  As  each  coil 
in  turn  revolves  through  the  magnetic  field,  current  is  generated  into  it,  and  the  brushes 
are  placed  in  such  a  position  that  they  collect  this  current  from  the  various  coils  and  deliver 
it  to  the  "line"  as  it  is  called.  This  current  may  be  used  for  charging  batteries  or  for  any 
other  purpose  where  direct  current  is  required. 

We  will  now  explain  how  magnetism  is  produced  in  the  pole  pieces.  This  can  be  obtained 
in  two  different  ways:  First,  by  means  of  permanent  magnets  as  used  on  magnetos  where 
there  is  no  regulation  of  current.  Second,  by  means  of  Electro  Magnets  for  the  pole  pieces, 
when  we  wish  to  regulate  the  amount  of  current  generated. 

Series  Wound.  Fig.  13,  page  61,  shows  how  the  current  is  taken  to  magnetize  the 
poles  of  a  Series  Wound  Machine.  It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  current  generated  in  the 
armature  passes  out  of  brush  "A,"  and  from  there  goes  through  the  upper  field  coil,  as  it  is 
called,  then  through  the  lower  field  coil  before  it  passes  out  to  the  line,  the  return  circuit  being 
completed  through  brush  "B."  Fig.  14,  page  61,  illustrates  how  this  circuit  is  shown  in  a 
simplified  way. 

Shunt  Wound  Machine.  This  type  of  generator  is  so  called  because  only  a  part  of 
the  current  flows  through  the  field  coils  to  magnetize  the  pole  pieces,  or  to  "excite  the  field," 
as  it  is  usually  called.  The  word  shunt  really  means  to  switch  or  divide  the  flow  of  current. 
In  this  machine  some  of  the  current  is  sVitched  off  the  main  circuit  and  goes  through  the  field 
coils.  This  machine  is  shown  in  Figs.  16  and  17,  page  61,  the  latter  being  a  simplified  machine. 

WATER  ANALOGY 

The  following  analogy  or  comparison  between  the  action  of  an  electric  system  and  that 
of  a  water  system  will  explain  some  of  the  terms  used.  The  pump  (generator)  forces  the 
water  (current)  through  the  pipes  (wires)  at  a  certain  number  of  pounds  (volts)  pressure,  as 
indicated  by  a  pressure  gauge  (voltmeter)  to  overcome  the  friction  resistance  of  the  pipes 
(wires)  in  order  that  the  water  (current)  may  flow  at  the  rate  of  so  many  gallons  (amperes) 
per  hour,  as  indicated  by  a  water  meter  (ammeter).  If  the  pipes  (wires)  are  too  large  the  cost 
will  be  too  great.  If  they  are  too  small  the  loss  will  be  too  great.  The  pipes  (wires)  might  be 
so  small  that  the  friction  (resistance)  would  absorb  a  very  large  portion  of  the  power  of  the 
pump  (generator),  leaving  little  remaining  for  useful  effect.  The  pipes  (wires)  require  valves 
(switches)  to  regulate  and  direct  the  flow  of  water  (current)  without  leak  (drop)  and  safety 
relief  valves  (fuses)  must  be  provided  to  prevent  damage  from  over-pressure  (over- voltage). 

,:        MOTORS  AND  GENERATORS 

1.  A  Motor  is  a  machine  used  to  convert  electric  energy  into  mechanical  energy. 

2.  A  generator  is  a  machine  used  to  convert  mechanical  energy  into  electric  energy. 

3.  The  most  important  parts  of  a  motor  or  generator  are  the  frame,  pole  pieces,  arma- 
ture, field  coils,  and  brushes. 

4.  The  material  in  the  frame  of  the  best  generators  is  made  of  drop-forged  steel. 

5.  Drop-forged  steel  is  an  excellent  conductor  of  magnetism,  and  more  lines  of  force 
can  be  produced  from  the  same  volume  of  metal. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  63 

6.  The  part  of  the  metal  frame  surrounded  by  the  field  coils  is  called  "pole  pieces." 

7.  The  metal  on  the  end  of  the  pole  piece  next  to  the  armature  is  often  called  the  "pole 
shoe."    In  the  construction  of  most  machines  it  is  a  part  of  the  pole  piece. 

8.  The  armature  of  a  motor  or  generator  is  the  revolving  part  of  the  machine.    The 
armature  of  an  electro  magnet  (cut-out  relay)  is  the  moving  part  of  the  electro  magnet. 

9.  The  armature  of  a  motor  or  generator  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  machine,  and  is 
mounted  in  bearings  which  are  located  in  the  end  frames. 

10.  In  the  operation  of  a  motor  or  generator  the  armature  revolves  continuously. 

11.  An  armature  is  composed  of  a  shaft,  laminations,  commutator,  wire,  and  insulating 
material. 

12.  The  laminations,  with  slots  cut  in  their  outer  edges,  are  assembled  on  the  shaft 
along  with  the  commutator.     Into  the  slots  of  the  lamination  the  insulated  wire  is  wound, 
the  ends  of  the  ceils  of  wire  being  connected  to  the  commutator. 

13.  The  commutator  is  composed  of  copper  bars  assembled  side  by  side  in  a  cylindrical 
form.    The  bars  are  insulated  from  each  other  with  strips  of  mica.    The  bars  of  copper  are 
called  "segments." 

14.  The  purpose  of  the  commutator  is  to  assist  in  making  a  flexible  connection  between 
the  outer  circuits  and  the  windings  of  the  armature.    It  also  assists  in  reversing  the  direction 
of  flow  of  current. 

15.  All  currents  generated  into  the  windings  of  an  armature  are  alternating  currents. 

16.  By  the  use  of  the  commutator  and  brushes  these  currents  are  converted  into  direct 
current  as  it  leaves  the  commutator. 

17.  The  brushes  rest  on  the  commutator  and  serve  to  make  a  connection  to  the  windings 
of  the  armature. 

18.  When  a  machine  is  being  used  as  a  motor,  current  is  being  introduced  into  the 
windings  of  the  armature. 

19.  When  a  machine  is  being  used  as  a  generator,  current  is  taken  from  the  windings 
of  the  armature. 

20.  The  brushes  of  a  motor  or  generator  may  be  made  of  carbon,  carbon  and  metal,  or 
metal  alone. 

21.  The  commutator  is  fastened  to  the  armature  shaft  and  revolves  with  the  armature. 

22.  Brushes  are  mounted  in  pockets  and  on  arms.     Mounting  on  arms  is  their  best 
method. 

23.  Where  pocket  type  mountings  are  used  the  brushes  often  stick  up,  due  to  dirt  and 
gum,  and  fail  to  make  good  contact  with  the  commutator. 

24.  When  brushes  are  mounted  on  arms  it  prevents  sticking  up  and  assures  even  tension 
in  the  commutator. 

25.  The  total  end  surface  of  all  brushes  should  come  in  contact  with  the  commutator. 

26.  If  the  total  end  surface  does  not  make  contact  with  the  commutator,  the  resistance 
between  the  brush  and  the  commutator  will  be  increased. 

27.  To  fit  brushes  to  a  commutator  use  a  strip  of  about  number  "0"  sand  cloth  the  full 
width  of  the  commutator,  and  insert  between  the  brushes  and  the  commutator  with  the  rough 
side  next  to  the  brush.    Then  sand  as  shown  in  Figures  23  and  25,  page  66.     Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  sand  cloth  is  not  pulled  back  and  forth,  as  shown  in  Figs.  24  and  25,  page  66, 
as  this  will  cut  the  corners  of  the  brushes  away. 

28.  Emery  cloth  must  not  be  used,  as  emery  is  a  conductor,  and  may  lodge  between  the 
segments  of  the  commutator  and  cause  short  circuits. 

29.  Never  lubricate  a  commutator.    Lubrication  in  a  commutator  will  cause  dirt  and 
gum  to  accumulate,  which  will  cause  poor  brush  contact  and  arcing. 

30.  The  segments  of  a  commutator  are  insulated  from  each  other  with  strips  of  mica. 


64  INFORMATION 

31.  These  mica  insulations  do  not  always  wear  as  fast  as  the  copper  segments.    This 
depends  upon  the  material  of  the  brushes  used. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  motor? 

2.  What  is  a  generator? 

3.  Name  the  most  important  parts  used  in  the  construction  of  motors  and  generators. 

4.  What  is  the  material  in  the  frames  of  the  best  machines? 

5.  Why  is  this  best? 

6.  What  is  a  pole  piece? 

7.  What  is  a  pole  shoe? 

8.  What  is  an  armature? 

9.  Where  is  the  armature  located? 

10.  How  can  it  be  distinguished? 

11.  Name  the  parts  used  in  the  construction  of  an  armature. 

12.  How  is  the  armature  constructed? 

13.  What  is  a  commutator? 

14.  What  is  the  use  of  the  commutator? 

15.  Are  currents  generated  into  the  armature  alternating  or  direct? 

16.  How  are  they  converted  into  direct  current? 

17.  What  are  brushes  used  for? 

18.  When  is  current  introduced  into  the  armature? 

19.  When  is  current  taken  from  the  windings  of  the  armature? 

20.  What  is  the  composition  of  the  brushes? 

21  Why  is  a  flexible  connection  to  the  commutator  necessary? 

22.  WTiat  is  the  best  way  to  mount  brushes? 

23.  What  are  the  objections  to  pocket  type  brush  holders? 

24.  What  are  the  advantages  of  mounting  brushes  on  arms? 

25.  How  much  of  the  end  surface  of  the  brushes  should  make  contact  with  the  commutator? 

26.  Why? 

27.  Give  proper  method  of  fitting  brushes  to  commutator. 

28.  Should  emery  cloth  be  used? 

29.  Should  a  commutator  be  lubricated? 

30.  How  are  the  commutator  bars  (segments)  insulated  from  each  other? 

31.  Do  mica  insulations  wear  as  fast  as  the  copper? 

32.  Carbon  brushes  are  nearly  always  used  on  generators,  and  metite  or  metal  brushes 
on  motors. 

33.  Where  metal  or  metite  brushes  are  used  the  micas  seem  to  wear  away  as  fast  as  the 
segments. 

34.  When  carbon  brushes  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  micas  grooved  out  below 
the  surface  of  the  commutator. 

35.  If,  in  the  wear  of  the  commutator,  the  micas  become  high,  the  brushes  will  not 
make  good  contact,  and  arcing  and  burning  will  result. 

36.  The  armature  must  always  be  removed  from  the  machine  before  the  micas  are 
grooved  out. 

37.  When  the  armature  is  put  in  a  lathe,  the  tool  carriage  should  first  be  run  along  to 
see  that  it  will  not  strike  the  armature  while  the  commutator  is  being  trued  up. 

38.  Then  the  commutator  should  be  trued  up  so  it  is  perfectly  round. 

39.  To  start  the  groove  in  the  micas  use  a  three-cornered  file,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18,  page 
66.    This  cuts  the  micas  out  so  a  hack-saw  blade  can  be  used. 

40.  After  the  groove  is  started  with  a  file,  use  a  piece  of  hack-saw  blade  the  thickness  of 
the  mica  to  cut  the  micas  out,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  page  66. 


ELEMENTARYELECTKICITY  65 

41.  If  the  hack-saw  blade  is  too  thick  it  can  be  ground  down  to  the  proper  thickness. 

42.  The  groove  should  be  cut  about  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  below  the  surface  of 
the  commutator. 

43.  If  the  micas  are  not  cut  away  they  will  break  clean  off  and  get  under  the  brushes 
and  cause  arcing.    See  Figs.  20  and  21,  page  66. 

44.  After  grooving  out  the  micas  the  commutator  should  be  sanded  and  polished.    Use 
dmeium  fine  sandpaper.     Speed  up  commutator  and  sand  as  shown  in  Fig.   22,    page   66. 
Pulling  the  ends  of  the  sand  paper  back  and  forth.    Then  use  cheese  cloth  and  polish. 

45.  The  commutator  can  usually  be  sanded  while  in  the  machine.    To  do  so,  first  lift 
the  brushes  and  then  sand  same  as  out  of  a  machine. 

46.  Sandpaper  must  not  be  held  on  the  commutator  under  finger  pressure.    It  will 
cause  grooves  to  be  cut  in  the  commutator. 

47.  Always  refit  brushes  to  a  commutator  after  truing  up  and  undercutting  micas. 

48.  Coal  Oil  (Kerosene)  should  be  used  on  a  commutator  to  loosen  up  the  dirt  and  gum. 

49.  Before  applying  the  coal  oil  be  sure  to  lift  the  brushes  and  not  allow  the  coal  oil  to 
get  on  them. 

50.  Apply  the  coal  oil  to  the  commutator  with  a  cloth,  being  careful  to  apply  only  to 
the  commutator. 

51.  Allow  the  coal  oil  to  remain  on  the  commutator  for  about  10  minutes. 

52.  Always  use  cheese  cloth  to  wipe  a  commutator.     Never  use  waste. 

53.  Cheese  cloth  is  nearly  free  of  lint  and  is  very  soft  and  flexible. 

54.  If  a  cloth  containing  lint  is  used  the  lint  will  be  caught  in  the  segments  and  will 
prevent  good  brush  contact,  which  will  cause  arcing. 

55.  Never  use  gasoline  to  clean  a  commutator.    It  will  get  into  the  winding  of  the  ar- 
mature and  evaporate  away  slowly.    When  the  machine  is  operated  an  explosion  may  occur. 

56.  When  oiling  parts  of  a  car  always  oil  the  motor  and  generator. 

57.  The  circuits  of  a  motor  or  generator  are  called  internal  circuits. 

58.  External  circuits  is  a  term  generally  applied  to  the  wiring  used  between  different 
pieces  of  electrical  apparatus. 

59.  When  testing  a  machine  do  not  use  a  buzzer.    The  resistance  of  many  circuits  that 
are  good  may  be  so  high  that  a  buzzer  will  not  operate.    Use  a  test  lamp  connected  to  a  110- 
volt  circuit. 

60.  The  term  "shunt  field"  applies  to  a  field  winding  that  is  connected  directly  across 
the  brushes.    See  Figs.  16  and  17,  page  61. 

61.  The  term  "series  field"  applies  to  a  field  winding  that  is  connected  in  series  with 
the  brushes. 

62.  The  care  a  user  should  give  a  motor  or  generator  is  to  keep  the  commutator  clean 
and  the  bearings  lubricated. 

QUESTIONS 

32.  What  kind  of  brushes  are  most  commonly  used? 

33.  With  what  kind  of  brushes  do  the  micas  wear  as  fast  as  the  copper? 

34.  Where  carbon  brushes  are  used  what  should  be  done  to  the  micas? 

35.  If,  in  the  wear  of  the  commutator,  the  micas  become  high,  what  will  result? 

36.  Can  the  micas  be  ground  out  when  the  armature  is  in  the  machine? 

37.  What  should  be  done  first  when  the  armature  is  put  in  the  lathe? 

38.  What  should  be  done  then? 

39.  How  should  the  grooves  in  the  mica  be  started? 

40.  How  should  the  grooves  be  finished? 

41.  What  should  be  done  if  the  hack-sa\v  blade  is  too  thick? 

42.  How  deep  should  the  groove  be  cut? 


66 


INFORMATION 


COMMUTATOR         Ar«»         BRUSHES 


iTA«T»NG     C^OOVr    »r<     MICA 
WITH      3-CORNE.REO     F-IUE 

-   /S. 


SJ-OTT/NC      /V//CA      W«TH 

p/ece"    o^  HACKSAW   BLADE. 


R/GHT       WAV 


SU'OTTINC:    MICA 


RIGHT     WAY 

.-  23 


WAV 

MICA    MOST    IYOT    BE  LEFT 
WITH    A    TH/N    COQE'    WCXT 

TO     S£'C/vf£'MTS. 

M/CA 


SANO' PAPER 


W«Ofs/G       WAY 


r.c.-25 


SANO/NG        BRUSHES 


F-/C- 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  67 

43.  What  will  result  if  the  edges  of  the  micas  are  not  cut  away  clean? 

44.  What  should  be  done  to  a  commutator  after  grooving  out  the  micas? 

45.  How  can  a  commutator  be  sanded  in  a  machine? 

46.  WThat  will  result  if  a  piece  of  sand  cloth  is  held  on  the  commutator  under  finger  pressure? 

47.  After  grooving  out  micas,  do  the  brushes  require  attention? 

48.  What  can  be  used  to  loosen  an  accumulation  on  the  commutator? 

49.  What  should  be  done  before  applying  coal  oil? 

50.  How  should  coal  oil  be  applied? 

51.  How  long  should  the  coal  oil  be  left  on  the  commutator? 

52.  What  should  be  used  to  wipe  a  commutator? 

53.  Why  cheese  cloth? 

54.  What  effect  will  lint  have? 

55.  Why  not  use  gasoline  to  clean  a  commutator? 

56.  How  often  should  the  bearings  be  lubricated? 

57.  What  are  the  circuits  of  a  motor  or  generator  called? 

58.  What  are  external  circuits? 

59.  What  should  be  used  to  test  a  machine  (motor  or  generator)? 

50.  What  is  meant  by  "shunt  field"? 

51.  What  is  meant  by  "series  field"? 

52.  What  care  should  the  owner  of  a  car  give  a  motor  or  generator? 

SOLDERING 

1.  Very  few  mechanics  or  repairmen  working  on  motor  cars  or  electric  devices  as  applied 
to  motor  cars  realize  the  importance  of  soldering  all  joints  or  splices  when  they  are  made. 

2.  If  a  piece  of  wire  is  attached  to  another  or  to  a  terminal  and  taped  up  without  being 
soldered,  the  connection  will  be  of  a  very  low  resistance  at  the  time,  but  corrosion  of  the 
parts  will  soon  take  place  and  offer  added  resistance  to  the  circuit. 

3.  This  will  cause  the  system  to  work  bad,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  trouble  will  be  hard  for 
the  average  man  to  locate.    All  connections  should  be  soldered  when  they  are  made. 

4.  In  soldering  wires  to  terminal  clips,  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  solder  does  not 
flow  over  the  portion  of  the  clip  that  goes  under  a  terminal. 

5.  When  soldering  a  wire  to  a  clip  or  making  a  soldered  connection,  the  tinned  side  of 
the  iron  should  be  held  close  to  the  point  where  the  solder  is  to  unite  the  two  parts. 

6.  The  iron  must  be  held  still,  that  all  the  heat  may  be  transmitted  to  one  point,  so  the 
solder  will  flow  freely.    After  soldering  always  test  these  parts  to  see  that  a  good  joint  is  made. 

7.  Another  thing  of  great  importance  is  the  solution  used  in  soldering.    The  following 
solutions  are  used:    Soldering  acid  (cut, muriatic  acid),  soldering  salts,  soldering  paste,  rosin, 
rosin  dissolved  in  grain  alcohol,  and  a  solution  known  as  ruby  fluid. 

8.  To  make  soldering  acid,  dissolve  zinc  into  muriatic  acid  until  the  acid  becomes  so 
«veak  that  it  will  not  dissolve  any  more  of  the  zinc.     This  solution  may  be  used  with  very 
good  results  on  large  work,  but  should  never  be  used  around  insulated  wire  with  a  cloth  covering. 

9.  If  this  solution  is  used  as  soon  as  the  work  is  done  the  parts  soldered  should  be  washed 
with  a  strong  solution  of  cooking  soda  and  water,  that  all  of  the  remaining  acid  is  removed. 

10.  This  acid  is  a  conductor  of  electricity,  and  if  left  on  the  parts  where  soldering  is 
done,  it  will  cause  light  grounds  or  short  circuits,  which  are  very  hard  to  find.   Soldering  pastes 
often  cause  the  same  trouble,  as  they  are  composed  of  substances  as  a  rule  that  are  high- 
resistance  conductors. 

11.  Plain  rosin  or  rosin  dissolved  in  grain  alcohol  is  an  excellent  solution  to  use.    When 
this  is  used  the  parts  to  be  soldered  must  be  cleaned  thoroughly. 

12.  To  make  this  solution,  dissolve  resin  and  grain  alcohol  into  a  solution  like  a  thin 
syrup.    If  this  solution  becomes  too  thick  at  any  time,  add  more  grain  alcohol  and  be  sure  to 
keep  the  container  closed  when  net  in  use. 


68  INFORMATION 

13.  Ruby  fluid  is  made  by  the  Ruby  Chemical  Company,  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  and  is 
used  by  many  electrical  manufacturers  in  their  work.    This  solution  does  not  act  as  a  con- 
ductor, and  can  be  used  at  all  times  with  safety. 

14.  The  size  and  shape  of  a  soldering  iron  depends  entirely  upon  the  class  of  work  to 
be  done.    When  doing  small  work  use  about  one-half  pound  iron  with  a  medium  sharp  point. 
Never  tin  but  one  side  of  the  iron,  and  then  the  flow  of  solder  can  be  controlled  at  all  times. 

15.  If  the  work  is  large,  it  is  best  to  use  an  iron  of  from  one  to  two  pounds  in  weight. 
The  point  of  the  iron  should  be  blunt.     Remember  that  you  are  trying  to  solder,  and  not 
scrub,  so  hold  the  iron  still  when  soldering, 

16.  Where  an  electric  iron  is  used  almost  continually,  it  is  best  to  make  up  a  block  with 
switch  attached.    Then  connect  a  32-candle  power  lamp  in  series  with  the  iron.    Then  connect 
the  switch  so  when  closed  it  will  short-circuit  the  lamp  and  let  the  required  amount  of  current 
flow  into  the  iron. 

17.  When  not  soldering,  snap  the  switch  off,  which  will  let  the  light  burn.    This  will 
reduce  the  amount  of  current  that  will  flow  through  the  iron. 

18.  Then  there  will  be  a  saving  of  current,  the  iron  will  last  much  longer,  point  will 
remain  tinned  longer,  and  the  iron  kept  warm  enough  that  when  wanted  again  it  will  only 
require  a  few  seconds  until  it  will  be  hot  enough. 

19.  When  tinning  an  iron  the  parts  to  be  tinned  should  be  cleaned  and  hammered  first, 
then  tinned.    This  will  cause  the  tin  to  remain  longer.    Use  a  sal  ammoniac  solution  to  dip 
iron  in  when  tinning. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Should  all  wire  connections  be  soldered? 

2.  What  will  result  if  connection  is  not  soldered? 

3.  WTill  this  effect  the  working  of  a  system? 

4.  What  should  be  done  when  soldering  wire  to  clips? 

5.  Give  method  of  holding  iron  when  soldering. 

6.  Why  should  the  iren  be  held  still  as  a  rule? 

7.  Name  some  solutions  used. 

8.  Give  method  of  making  soldering  acid. 

9.  What  should  be  done  when  acid  is  used? 

10.  If  surplus  acid  is  not  removed  after  soldering,  what  will  result? 

11.  Name  one  good  solution  that  is  not  a  conductor. 

12.  How  is  the  solution  made? 

13.  Is  Ruby  Fluid  good?    Where  made? 

14.  Give  size  of  irons  to  use. 

15.  What  should  be  the  shape  of  a  heavy  iron? 

16.  What  should  be  done  when  using  an  electric  iron? 

17.  What  effect  will  a  light  have  when  connected  in  series  with  iron? 

18.  What  benefits  will  result? 

19.  Give  method  of  tinning  an  iron. 

INSPECTION 

1.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  that  a  lot  of  instruments  are  necessary  in  order  to 
locate  electrical  troubles  of  a  Gas  Engine  electric  system.    A  reliable  voltmeter  and  ammeter 
test  set  (see  Phillips  test  set,  Model  302),  page  70,  is  all  that  is  necessary  at  any  time. 

2.  The  fact  is  that  the  greatest  number  of  troubles  arise  from  small  causes,  and  in  some 
cases  instruments  are  not  necessary  in  detecting  these  causes.     The  thing  most  needed  is  a 
solid  understanding  of  the  simple  Principles  of  Electricity. 

3.  The  next  thing  is  to  cultivate  the  useful  habit  of  using  your  eyes  to  examine  every- 
thing carefully.    In  the  first  place,  all  apparatus  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible.    Remember 
that  dirt  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  electrical  troubles. 


ELEMENTARY    ELECTRICITY  69 

4.  For  example,  a  very  small  piece  of  dirt  getting  between  the  distributor  contact  points 
will  cause  the  failure  of  ignition.    Dirt  on  a  commutator  causes  arcing  at  the  brushes,  excessive 
wear  of  both  brushes  and  commutator,  low  generator,  output,  etc. 

5.  Corroded  connection  may  also  be  classed  along  with  dirt,  because  corrosion  acts  in 
the  same  way  and  prevents  the  proper  flow  of  current.    Corrosion  will  usually  be  found  on 
bolted  connections  where  exposed  to  moisture  or  acid  fumes.     Storage  batteries  should  be 
particularly  examined  from  time  to  time  to  see  that  the  terminals  are  clean  and  firmly  fastened 
in  place. 

6.  Loose  wires  and  connections  form  another  source  of  trouble.    Therefore  all  connections 
should  be  carefully  examined  from  time  to  time  and  cleaned  and  fastened  securely.    Defective 
insulation  should  be  looked  for  and  attended  to  at  once. 

7.  Repair  or  replace  all  insulation  that  is  cut,  worn,  or  broken.     Cut  or  worn  insula- 
tion will  usually  be  found  where  wires  enter  a  circuit  or  where  wires  rub  together  or  become 
chafed  by  rubbing  on  some  metal  part. 

8.  All  wires  should  be  firmly  secured  with  the  necessary  cleats,  and  must  not  be  allowed 
to  hang  loosely  or  unsupported.     Broken  insulation  will  usually  be  found  in  the  shape  of 
broken  insulating  washers,  bushings,  sleeves,  etc.    If  any  of  these  are  broken  or  even  cracked, 
they  should  be  replaced  with  some  new  ones  immediately. 

9.  Sometimes  in  reassembling  apparatus  an  insulating  washer  or  bushing  may  have  been 
left  out.    Therefore  examine  carefully  to  see  that  no  parts  are  missing.     In  almost  all  cases 
where  trouble  arises  from  any  of  the  above-mentioned  causes,  a  careful  inspection  will  show 
where  it  is.    In  all  cases  of  trouble  a  thorough  examination  should  be  made,  as  this  will  usually 
locate  the  cause  and  make  further  testing  unnecessary. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  instruments  are  necessary  in  locating  electric  troubles? 

2.  What  is  most  needed  in  locating  electric  troubles? 

3.  Name  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  electric  troubles. 

4.  Give  two  examples  of  dirt  causing  trouble. 

5.  Give  the  effects  of  corrosion. 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "defective  insulation?" 

7.  What  will  cause  defective  insulation? 

8.  How  should  insulation  be  protected? 

9.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  when  reassembling  apparatus? 


70 


INFORMATION 


SIGNS,     SYMSOL.&.      AMP      ASgRgWAT-/g/VS 


INEGATI 


ARROW 


OIRECTtON 


CLOCKWISE" 


c.  c.  w. 


COUNTER-CLOCKWI&E:    RE:  vot-u-r  ION. 


COIL.    OF"    iNSuL.A~reo 


co/u     OP-     /rvSui_AT£O    WIRE. 


MACHINE:. 


S£/?I£TS    WOU/YD    MACH/A/E". 


CRO.SS//YG. 


RHEOSTAT    OR 


^frs/STA/vcer. 


VOL-T 


D.C. 


A.C. 


ALTERNATING 


K.W 


KILONVATT.       (/ooo    WATTS). 


H.R 


HORSE 


(74-6  WATTS). 


SECTION  2 

DRIVING  THE  CAR 


DRIVING  THE  CAR 


1.  Before  Leaving  the  Garage.     See  that  there  is  sufficient  gasoline  and  oil  in  the  tanks 
to  carry  you  the  distance  you  wish  to  go.    Examine  the  radiator  or  tank  to  see  that  it  is  full 
of  water.    Have  sufficient  air  in  the  tires.    All  grease  cups  should  be  filled  and  turned  down 
properly.     If  batteries  only  are  used,  two  should  be  carried,  and  one  of  them  fully  charged. 

2.  If  you  are  carrying  only  one  battery,  be  sure  that  it  is  sufficiently  charged  to  make 
the  desired  run.     Have  on  the  car  at  least  one  extra  shoe,  and  three  extra  tubes,  with  the 
ordinary  equipment  of  tire  pump,  jack,  oil,  gun,  tire  tools,  tire  patches  and  cement,  and  the 
regular  kit  of  other  tools. 

3.  A  set  of  non-skid  chains  will  be  found  very  useful  on  wet  asphalt.    They  should  not 
be  used,  however,  any  more  than  is  necessary,  as  they  wear  the  tires  excessively.    A  couple 
of  extra  spark  plugs  should  be  carried  to  save  the  trouble  of  cleaning  a  short-circuited  one  on 
the  road. 

4.  Starting  Crank.     In  a  gasoline  automobile  it  is  found  that  the  motor  must  draw  a 
supply  of  gas  into  the  cylinder  and  compress  it  before  this  charge  can 'be  ignited  to  expand 
and  give  power.    It  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  some  means  of  turning  the  engine  over  to 
accomplish  this. 

5.  The  starting  crank,  placed  usually  on  the  front  of  the  machine,  just  in  front  of  the 
radiator  and  between  the  front  spring  horns,  is  for  this  purpose.    It  is  operated  as  a  rule  with 
the  right  hand,  and  is  rotated  clock-wise  (the -direction  the  hands  of  a  clock  travel).    When 
there  is  a  self-starter  provided,  the  starting  crank  is  carried  in  the  tool  box  and  is  used  only 
when  the  starter  will  not  operate. 

6.  Starting  Pedal.     The  starting  pedal  or  button  may  generally  be  found  somewhere 
on  the  floor  board.    Pressing  on  it  connects  an  electric  motor  to  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine 
and  closes  a  switch  that  allows  current  from  the  storage  battery  to  flow  to  the  motor  and 
crank  the  engine.     This  takes  the  place  of  the  hand  starting  crank. 

7.  Clutch  Pedal.     It  is  quite  often  desirable  to  run  the  engine  without  moving  the 
car  and  it  will  also  be  found  necessary  at  times  to  bring  into  mesh  different  gears  so  that 
more  power  or  speed  may  be  obtained.    A  clutch  is  therefore  placed  between  the  engine  and 
the  rear  wheels. 

8.  It  is  controlled  by  means  of  a  pedal  placed  just  back  of  the  dash.     The  clutch  is 
released  by  pressing  on  this  pedal  with  the  left  foot,  and  when  released  the  engine  will  con- 
tinue to  run,  but  will  not  deliver  power  to  the  driving  wheels. 

9.  When  the  pressure  of  the  left  foot  is  released  from  the  pedal  the  clutch  will  become 
engaged  automatically  by  means  of  a  stiff  spring  and  the  car  will  move  forward  or  backward, 
according  to  which  gears  are  in  the  mesh. 

10.  If  the  gears  are  in  the  neutral  position,  however,  power  will  not  be  applied  to  the 
car  when  the  clutch'  is  engaged.     The  clutch  must  be  released  every  time  the  gear  shifting 
.lever  is  moved  and  whenever  the  brake  is  applied. 

Remember,  it  is  depressing  or  pushing  this  pedal  that  overcomes  the  tension  of 
the  spring  and  releases  the  clutch,  and  when  no  pressure  is  applied  to  the  pedal  the  clutch  is 
engaged. 

72 


DRIVING   THE    CAR  73 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  should  be  done  before  leaving  the  garage? 

2.  Give  lists  of  extra«  parts  that  should  be  carried  in  kit. 

3.  When  should  skid-chains  be  used?     Why  not  all  the  time? 

4.  Explain  the  use  of  the  starting  crank. 

6.  Where  is  the  starting  crank  located? 

7.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  clutch  pedal?     Where  located? 

8.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  clutch?     Where  located? 

9.  Explain  in  detail  the  operation  of  the  clutch. 

12.  The   Running   Brake   Pedal.      The  running   brake  is   used   for   bringing   the 
car  to  a  standstill.    It  is  operated  by  means  of  a  pedal  placed  just  back  of  the  dash  and  to  the 
right  of  the  clutch  pedal.    To  apply  the  brake  first  release  the  clutch  by  pushing  on  the  clutch 
pedal,  then  push  down  or  forward  on  the  brake  pedal  with  the  right  foot,  gently  but  firmly, 
until  the  car  is  stopped. 

13.  After  removing  the  foot  from  the  brake  pedal  the  brake  will  be  released  automat- 
ically by  means  of  a  spring.    Use  the  brake  gently  to  save  discomfort  to  the  passengers,  wear 
on  tires,  and  the  machine  in  general.    Do  not  run  close  to  the  point  where  .the  stop  is  to  be 
made  and  then  jam  the  brake  on  hard,  but  begin  early  to  apply  it  and  bring  the  car  to  a  stand- 
still gradually. 

14.  Gear  Shifting  Lever.     This  lever  is  usually  placed  forward  and  to  the  right  of 
the  operator's  seat,  and  to  the  left  of  the  emergency  brake  lever.     It  is  operated  with  the 
right  hand.    By  shifting  this  lever,  which  engages  different  sets  of  gears,  the  machine  may  be 
made  to  go  forward  at  different  speeds  while  the  engine  turns  at  a  practically  uniform  speed. 

15.  It  also  controls  the  reverse  gear.     When  the  car  is  standing  the  lever  should  be 
left  in  neutral  position.     When  in  this  position,  even  if  the  clutch  is  engaged,  the  machine 
will  not  move.     To  start  the  car,  release  emergency  brake,  release  the  clutch  with  left  foot, 
grasp  the  gear  shifting  lever  with  the  right  hand  and  shift  from  the  neutral  position  to  the 
first  speed  notch,  accelerate  slightly,  then  allow  the  clutch  to  engage  slowly,  and  the  car  will 
start. 

16.  After  the  car  has  started  release  the  clutch  again  and  shift  the  gear  lever  to  the 
second  speed  notch  and  engage  the  clutch  quickly  but  gently.     Repeat  this  operation  for 
third  and  fourth  speeds.     Always  release  clutch  when  shifting  this  lever.      Whenever 
the  car  is  brought  to  a  standstill,  put  the  lever  in  the  neutral  position  before  applying  emergency 
brakes. 

17.  Accelerator  Pedal.     This  pedal  operates  the  throttle  on  the  carburetor  and  regu- 
lates the  amount  of  gas  going  to  the  engine  and  thus  controls  the  power  which  the  motor 
develops.     It  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  clutch  and  brake  pedals,  but  usually  to  the 
right  of  the  brake  pedal,  and  is  operated  by  the  right  foot. 

18.  More  gas  is  permitted  to  enter  the  cylinder  and  therefore  more  power  is  obtained 
by  pressing  on  it,  and  when  released  the  throttle  will  be  returned  to  its  minimum  position  by 
means  of  a  spring. 

19.  Push  on  the  pedal  very  slowly,  for  a  slight  movement  greatly  increases  the  power 
developed  by  the  motor,  and  a  too  sudden  application  of  power  will  strain  the  whole  machine. 
It  should  be  pushed  slightly  when  the  clutch  is  engaged  to  increase  the  power  of  the  motor, 
and  should  be  released  when  the  clutch  is  disengaged,  so  that  the  engine  will  not  race. 

20.  The  Throttle  Lever.     This  lever  controls  the  throttle  on  the  carburetor  the  same 
as  the  accelerator  pedal,  but  it  has  a  spring  latch  and  when  it  is  desirable  to  run  the  machine 
for  some  distance  at  a  nearly  constant  speed,  this  lever  may  be  used,  as  it  will  stay  placed, 
thus  relieving  the  right  foot,  which  would  become  tired  holding  the  accelerator  pedal  in  one 
position  for  a  long  time.     It  is  usually  placed  on  the  steering  post,  above  the  steering  wheel, 
and  is  operated  with  the  right  hand. 


74  INFORMATION 

QUESTIONS 

12.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  running  brake  pedal?     Where  is  the  running  brake  pedal 
located? 

13.  Explain  operation  of  running  brakes. 

14.  Explain  operation  and  use  of  the  gear  shifting  lever. 

15.  What  should  be  done  to  the  clutch  when  shifting  gears? 

17.  Explain  use  of  accelerator  pedal.     Where  located? 

18.  Explain  when  to  use  and  when  not  to  use  accelerator. 

19.  Give  use  and  operation  of  the  throttle  lever. 

20.  Where  is  the  throttle  lever  located? 

21.  The  Emergency  Brake  Lever.     The  emergency  brakes  are  used  chiefly  after  the 
car  has  been  stopped  and  the  operator  wishes  to  leave  it.     They  are  applied  by  means  of  a 
lever  operated  by  the  right  hand.    This  lever  is  usually  placed  just  forward  and  to  the  right 
of  the  driver's  seat. 

22.  It  is  fitted  with  a  spring  latch  and  when  applied  will  lock  on,  and  so  is  very  con- 
venient in  stopping  on  a  hill  or  when  the  car  is  left  standing  at  the  curb.    The  brake  is  applied 
by  pulling]  back. the  lever.    This  brake  can  be  used  alone  or  in  connection  with  the  running 
brake  for  quick  stops  when  necessary,  but  it  should  not  be  used  for  ordinary  stopping  as  it 
is  usually  not  designed  for  such  work. 

Do  Not  Advance  Throttle  Lever  Too  Quickly. 

23.  The  Spark  Control  Lever.     It  takes  some  time  after  the  spark  occurs  for  the 
gas  to  get  thoroughly  ignited  and  give  power.     It  is  therefore  desirable  to  have  the  spark 
occur  earlier  when  the  engine  is  running  fast,  so  that  the  gas  may  be  thoroughly  ignited  at 
the  beginning  and  deliver  power  for  full  length  of  the  working  stroke. 

24.  This  means  that  the  spark  when  advanced  actually  occurs  when  the  piston  is  still 
traveling  upon  the  compression  stroke  and  so  gets  the  gas  in  the  cylinder  at  its  maximum 
pressure  when  the  crank  passes  top  dead  center. 

25.  When  the  motor  is  cranked  in  starting  it  is  turned  so  slowly  that  to  avoid  a  kick 
back  the  spark  must  be  retarded  so  that  it  occurs  after  the  crank  has  passed  top  dead  center. 

26.  The  spark  control  lever  is  connected  with  the  spark  timing  device  and  so  controls 
the  time  at  which  the  spark  occurs  in  the  cylinder.    It  is  usually  placed  on  the  steering  column 
above  the  steering  wheel,  and  is  operated  with  the  right  hand. 

27.  On  some  cars  it  is  moved  forward  and  on  others  backward  to  advance  the  spark. 
When  the  engine  is  cranked  in  starting  the  spark  should  be  fully  retarded.    After  the  motor 
has  started  it  can  usually  be  advanced  about  two  thirds,  but  there  is  no  set  rule  for  this. 

28.  In  general  advance  as  the  motor  (not  the  car)  gains  speed,  and  retard  as  it  slackens 
speed.    Keep  the  spark  advanced  as  far  as  possible  at  all  times,  but  retard  it  as  the  engine 
labors  or  knocks. 

29.  Ignition  Switch.     Usually  placed  on  the  dash.     It  is  for  the  purpose  of  closing 
and  opening  the  electric  circuit  and  thus  stopping  the  motor  or  allowing  it  to  be  started.    It 
is  generally  provided  with  a  removable  plug  or  key  so  that  the  car  may  be  safely  left  at  the 
curb.'   Be  sure  that  switch  is  in  "off"  position  when  the  motor  is  stopped. 

30.  Steering  Wheel.     The  steering  wheel  is  usually  placed  on  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  car,  directly  in  front  of  the  operator's  seat.    By  its  means  the  direction  of  the  car  is  con- 
trolled.   When  moving  forward,  turning  the  wheel  counter  clockwise  will  cause  the  car  to  go 
to  the  left  and  turning  it  clockwise  will  cause  the  car  to  go  to  the  right. 

31.  It  should  be  operated  with  the  left  hand  only  unless  steering  is  very  hard,  when 
both  hands  may  be  used.     Grasp  the  wheel  firmly  with  one  or  both  hands,  but  not  with  a 
strong,  nervous  grip,  as  this  becomes  very  tiresome. 

32.  If  the  hand  is  always  kept  in  one  position  on  the  wheel  when  only  slight  turns  are 
desired,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  knowing  by  its  position  when  the  front  wheels  are  point- 


DRIVING    THE    CAR  75 

ing  straight  ahead.     When  turning  corners  the  position  of  the  hand  on  the  wheel  may  be 
changed  and  both  hands  should  be  used. 

33.  Do  not  attempt  to  turn  the  steering  wheel  when  the  car  is  not  moving  as  this  throws 
a  very  great  and  entirely  needless  strain  on  the  whole  steering  mechanism. 

QUESTIONS 

21.  Give  use  of  spark  control  lever. 

22.  Explain  advance  and  retard  of  the  spark. 

23.  What  would  cause  a  back  fire? 

24.  Will  wrong  position  of  throttle  lever  cause  loss  of  power? 

25.  What  should  be  the  position  of  the  throttle  lever  when  running? 

26.  Give  use  of  the  emergency  brake  lever.     Where  located? 

27.  Give  use  of  the  ignition  switch. 

28.  Where  is  it  located?     How  operated? 

30.  Give  use,  location,  and  operation  of  the  steering  wheel. 

31.  Explain  operation  in  detail. 

34.  Priming  Device  or  "Choke".     When  the  engine  is  cranked  in  starting  it  is  turned 
so  slowly  that  the  air  going  in  through  the  carburetor  has  not  sufficient  velocity  to  draw  the 
required  amount  of  gasoline  from  the  spray  nozzle.    The  mixture  that  -goes  into  the  cylinder 
is  therefore  weak  and  cannot  be  exploded  easily. 

35.  To  enrich  the  mixture  a  valve  is  placed  in  the  carburetor  air  passage,  to  choke  off 
the  air  and  feed  more  gasoline  to  the  motor.     This  valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  or  button 
usually  found  on  the  dash  or  attached  to  the  steering  column  under  the  steering  wheel. 

36.  It  is  often  combined  with  a  device  for  making  the  mixture  richer  or  leaner  to  take 
care  of  different  weather  conditions.     Some  engines  will  start  nearly  every  time  without 
priming  the  carburetor;  others  must  be  primed  every  time  the  engine  is  started.     Do  not 
prime  to  excess;  as  soon  as  the  engine  starts,  return  the  lever  or  button  to  the  running  position. 

37.  The  Gasoline  Tank.     The  gasoline  tank  carries  the  fuel  that  is  to  be  fed  to  the 
engine.     It  will  sometimes  be  found  under  the  front  seat,  and  may  be  filled  by  removing 
the  cushion.     In  this  system  the  gasoline  flows  by  gravity  to  the  carburetor,  and  a  small 
hole  about  the  size  of  a  pin  will  be  found  in  the  filler  cap  to. allow  air  to  enter  as  the  gasoline 
leaves. 

38.  This  hole  should  be  kept  clean,  because  if  the  air  cannot  enter  the  gasoline  will  stop 
flowing  to  the  carburetor  and  the  engine  will  stop  running.    Some  cars  carry  the  gasoline  tank 
on  the  rear  of  the  chassis,  under  the  body,  and  air  pressure  is  kept  on  the  gasoline  to  force  it 
to  the  carburetor. 

39.  This  pressure  is  obtained  by  a  hand  pump  placed  on  the  dash,  and  is  kept  constant 
automatically.     This  system  differs  from  all  others  in  that  there  should  be  no  hole  in  the 
filler  cap  of  the  tank  and  the  gasket  on  the  cap  should  be  kept  in  good  condition  to  prevent 
air  leakage.    A  gauge  will  be  found  on  the  dash  and  by  this  means  the  pressure  on  the  tank 
can  be  determined. 

40.  Other  cars  with  the  tank  under  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis  have  a  system  of  drawing 
the  gasoline  by  means  of  a  vacuum  to  a  small  tank  located  by  the  carburetor  by  gravity. 
Still  other  cars  have  a  gasoline  tank  in  the  cowl  of  the  dash  from  which  the  gasoline  flows  to 
the  carburetor  by  gravity. 

QUESTIONS 

34.  Give  use  of  priming  device  or  choke. 

35.  Explain  its  operation. 

37.  Why  is  a  large  gasoline  tank  necessary? 

38.  Describe  three  systems  of  supplying  gasolhie  to  the  carburetor. 

39.  Is  it  necessary  to  have  a  hole  in  the  filler  cap  of  all  gasoline  tanks?     Why? 


76  INFORMATION 

41.  The  Lubricator.     The  lubricating  system  is  generaly  built  into  the  crank  case  of 
the  engine.     The  oil  is  supplied  through  a  pipe  or  other  opening  found  on  the  engine  and 
gauge,  or  pet  cock  is  provided  to  indicate  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  motor.    The  system  should 
be  kept  filled  with  a  light  to  medium  weight  high-grade  gas  engine  oil. 

42.  The  lubricating  system  usually  oils  all  internal  parts  of  the  engine  only.    The  trans- 
mission, steering,  and  different  gears  being  lubricated  by  heavy  oil  or  grease  placed  in  their 
respective  housings,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  cars  are  taken  care  of  by  oil  or  grease  cups. 
Any  oil  put  into  the  engine  should  be  carefully  strained  to  remove  dirt  or  grit. 

43.  The  Water  Tank.     The  water  tank  or  radiator  is  placed  on  the  front  of  the  car 
and  should  be  kept  filled  with  clear  water.    Any  sediment  that  is  allowed  to  enter  the  radiator 
will  clog  it  and  the  engine  will  then  overheat. 

44.  During  the  winter  it  is  well  to  fill  the  radiator  with  some  anti-freezing  solution. 

45.  Alcohol  is  good  for  this  purpose,  mixed  with  water  in  the  following  proportions  as 
desired: 

46.  2  pints  wood  alcohol  to  1  gal.  water,  freezes  at  zero. 

1%  pints  wood  alcohol  to  1  gal.  water,  freezes  at  10  below  zero. 

3  pints  wood  alcohol  to  1  gal.  water,  freezes  at  20  below  zero. 

4  pints  wood  alcohol  to  1  gal.  water,  freezes  at  30  below  zero. 

47.  If  steam  is  discharged  from  the  radiator,  examine  the  fan  directly  back  of  it  and 
the  water  pump,  and  See  that  there  is  no  clog  in  the  pipes  leading  to  and  from  it. 

48.  Tires.     Keep  the  tires  free  from  oil  and  grease  as  they  rot  the  rubber.     Drive 
very  carefully  in  wet  weather  because  rubber  cuts  very  easily  Avhen  wet.    Drive  slowly  around 
corners  and  start  and  stop  without  jerks;  also  be  very  careful  not  to  rub  the  tires  against  the 
curb. 

49.  Have  all  small  cuts  vulcanized  so  that  moisture  cannot  get  in  and  rot  the  fabric. 
Do  not  run  on  a  flat  tire  unless  it  has  been  damaged  beyond  repair.    Run  slowly  on  the  rip, 
or  wrap  a  rope  around  it  if  no  other  tire  is  to  be  had. 

50.  It  is  very  important  to  keep  the  tires  fully  inflated  at  all  times.    If  tires  do  not  give 
satisfactory  wear,  report  it  to  the  manufacturer  at  once.    When  the  car  is  to  be  laid  up  for 
some  time,  place  jacks  under  it  to  keep  the  weight  off  the  tires. 

QUESTIONS 

41.  Why  is  lubrication  necessary? 

42.  Describe  a  simple  lubricating  system. 

43.  Give  use  of  the  radiator. 

44.  What  should  be  done  to  prevent  freezing  of  water  in  winter? 

45.  What  solution  is  most  commonly  used? 

46.  Give  proportions  to  use  for  various  temperatures. 

47.  What  does  a  discharge  of  steam  from  a  radiator  indicate? 

48.  What  effect  does  grease  and  oil  have  on  tires? 

49.  What  should  be  done  when  small  cuts  are  detected  in  tires? 

50.  What  should  be  done  to  the  tires  when  car  is  laid  up  for  the  winter? 

51.  To  Start  the  Motor.     Place  the  gear  shifting  lever  in  the  neutral  position,  put 
the  emergency  brake  on,  retard  the  spark  fully  or,  if  well  acquainted  with  the  motor,  to  a 
point  where  the  spark  will  surely  occur  after  the  crank  has  passed  top  center. 

52.  Open  throttle  about  one  third  (after  getting  acquainted  with  the  machine  you  will 
find  a  position  for  the  throttle  where  the  motor  starts  best).    Put  the  switch  in  "On"  position. 
If  the  motor  habitually  starts  hard,  prime  the  carburetor  with  choking  or  enriching  lever. 

53.  If  the  car  is  equipped  with  electric  self-starter,  press  hard  on  starting  button  or 
pedal.    When  the  engine  starts  remove  foot  from  pedal  immediately,  then  close  throttle  and 
advance  spark  lever  two-thirds. 

54.  In  cranking  the  motor  by  hand,  grasp  some  part  of  the  car  with  the  left  hand  to 


DRIVING   THE    CAR  77 

steady  yourself,  place  the  feet  wide  apart,  and  stand  close  to  the  front  of  the  machine.  Grasp 
the  starting  crank  with  the  right  hand,  having  it  at  its  lowest  position  or  a  little  to  the  right 
of  this  point. 

55.  Push  crank  in  as  far  as  it  will  go  and  turn  slowly  clockwise  until  it  engages  the 
crank  shaft.    It  will  usually  catch  when  about  at  its  lowest  position.    When  engaged,  brace 
yourself  firmly  and  pull  up  quickly  on  crank,  turning  it  about  one  half  revolution. 

56.  If  after  repeating  this  operation  several  times,  the  engine  does  not  start,  it  may 
be  found  necessary  to  spin  the  motor.     This  means  cranking  for  a  full  revolution  or  more. 
In  spinning  the  motor,  care  should  be  taken  to  always  start  with  an  up  pull  so  as  to  gain 
momentum  for  the  down  thrust  and  so  reduce  the  danger  of  a  kick  back  to  a  minimum. 

57.  After  the  engine  starts,  advance  the  spark  about  two  thirds  and  close  the  throttle. 
If  the  engine  has  been  started  on  the  battery  and  a  magneto  is  used,  switch  immediately  from 
the  battery  to  magneto.    Do  not  allow  the  motor  to  race.    When  running  idle  it  should  turn 
over  at  its  lowest  speed. 

68.  To  Start  the  Car.  Take  your  place  in  the  driver's  seat,  place  left  foot  on  clutch 
pedal  and  press  hard  to  release  the  clutch.  Keep  it  disengaged  while  with  the  right  hand 
the  emergency  brake  is  released  and  gear  lever  is  shifted  from  neutral  to  the  first  speed  notch. 

59.  Then  with  the  right  foot  press  the  accelerator  pedal  gently  until  the  motor  speed 
is  increased  a  little  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  left  foot  allow  the  clutch  pedal  to  come 
back  until  the  clutch  starts  to  engage  and  the  car  begins  to  move. 

60.  From  this  point  decrease  the  pressure  on  the  pedal  very  gradually  until  the  clutch 
is  fully  engaged,  at  the  same  time  listening  to  the  engine  to  see  that  it  doesn't  slow  down 
sufficiently  to  stall. 

61.  If  it  shows  signs  of  stalling,  press  accelerator  pedal  a  little  more  to  increase  the 
speed,  at  the  same  time  keeping  a  slightly  greater  pressure  on  the  clutch  pedal.    Stalling  the 
motor  is  the  result  of  feeding  too  little  gas  with  the  accelerator  or  of  not  keeping  pressure  on 
the  clutch  pedal  during  the  time  the  clutch  is  engaging. 

62.  The  jerking  of  the  car  comes  from  feeding  too  much  gas  and  engaging  the  clutch 
too  suddenly.    Both  of  these  faults  may  be  overcome  by  listening  to  the  speed  of  the  engine 
and  keeping  it  right  through  the  proper  use  of  the  accelerator  pedal,  and  by  releasing  the 
pressure  of  the  foot  from  the  clutch  pedal  very  gradually  from  the  time  it  starts  to  engage 
until  it  is  fully  engaged. 

63.  It  is  impossible  to  become  a  good  driver  until  the  ear  learns  to  judge  the  speed  of 
the  motor  by  its  sound  and  the  left  foot  learns  to  engage  the  clutch  gradually.    When  the 
clutch  has  become  fully  engaged,  press  accelerator  pedal  slightly  to  speed  up  the  machine. 

64.  As  soon  as  it  has  attained  fair  momentum,  release  the  clutch  and  at  the  same  time 
let  up  on  the  accelerator  pedal.    Change  gear  lever  quickly  until  you  feel  it  take  hold  and  then 
gradually  at  the  same  time  pressing  slightly  on  the  accelerator  pedal. 

65.  When  the  clutch  pedal  is  pushed  out  the  accelerator  pedal  should  be  released. 
When  the  clutch  pedal  is  in,  the  accelerator  pedal  should  be  pressed  slightly.  Change 
from  second  to  third  and  from  third  to  fourth  if  your  speeds  are  employed,  always  releasing 
clutch  when  gear  is  shifted,  and  always  accelerating  slightly  while  the  clutch  is  being 
engaged. 

66.  Do  not  forget  that  the  clutch  is  released  when  the  clutch  pedal  is  pushed  out,  and 
that  it  is  engaged  when  the  pedal  is  allowed  to  come  back.    Run  on  high-speed  gear  as  much 
as  possible,  and  when  it  is  necessary  to  drive  more  slowly,  release  the  clutch  and  apply  the 
brake  gently  until  the  car  is  brought  to  the  desired  speed. 

67.  Then  if  the  speed  of  the  machine  is  low  enough  to  warrant  it,  release  the  brake 
and  with  the  clutch  still  disengaged,  change  from  the  high  to  the  next  lower  speed  notch  and 
let  in  the  clutch. 

68.  If  the  car  has  lost  much  momentum  it  may  be  necessary  to  change  to  the  lowest  gear 
before  letting  in  the  clutch,  otherwise  the  engine  may  be  stalled.    Do  not  drive  too  close  to 


78  INFORMATION 

the  other  vehicles  or  objects  before  releasing  the  clutch  and  applying  the  brakes,  as  the  brakes 
may  not  hold  as  well  as  you  think  and  you  may  not  be  able  to  operate  them  correctly  when  in 
close  quarters. 

69.  If  while  the  machine  is  standing  it  is  found  impossible  to  move  the  gear  lever  from 
neutral  to  first  or  reverse,  leave  the  lever  in  neutral,  allow  the  clutch  to  engage  slightly,  then 
release  it  quickly  and  shift  lever  to  desired  notch. 

QUESTIONS 

51.  Give  position  of  gear  shifting  lever,  emergency  brake,  spark  and  throttle  levers  when 
preparing  to  start  motor. 

52.  If  motor  naturally  starts  hard,  what  should  be  done? 

54.  Give  method  of  cranking  engine  by  hand. 

55.  What  precautions  should  be  taken? 

57.  When  engine  starts,  what  should  be  done? 

58.  Give  position  of  clutch  pedal,  accelerator  pedal,  and  running  brake  pedal. 

59.  Describe  method  of  starting  car. 

61.  If  engine  shows  signs 'of  stalling,  what  should  be  done?     Why? 

62.  What  will  cause  jerking  of  the  car? 

63.  How  would  you  overcome  jerking  of  the  car? 

65.  What  should  be  done  when  changing  gears? 

66.  What  is  the  position  of  the  clutch  pedal  when  clutch  is  released? 

68.   What  precautions  should  be  taken  when  driving  car  close  to  other  vehicles? 

70.  To  Stop  the  Car.     Select  a  lamp  post,  tree,  or  other  object  along  the  curb  and 
when  still  some  distance  from  it,  disengage  the  clutch  and  apply  the  brake  gently,  and  get 
the  car  under  control  so  that  you  can  if  you  wish  stop  ten  feet  before  the  object  is  reached. 

71.  Then  release  the  brake  pressure  slightly,  allow  the  car  to  drift  to  the  object,  stop- 
ping with  the  rear  directly  opposite  the  object  and  the  car  close  enough  to  the  curb  to  allow 
passengers  to  alight  on  the  sidewalk. 

72.  Shift  gears  to  neutral,  apply  emergency  brake  and  allow  clutch  to  engage.     Be 
careful  that  the  tires  do  not  scrape  along  the  curb,  as  this  is  very  damaging.    The  brake  should 
be  applied  so  that  the  car  is  not  brought  up  with  a  jerk.    This  can  be  accomplished  easily  with 
a  little  practice,  as  can  also  starting  of  the  car.    Remember  that  you  are  driving  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  passengers,  and  they  can  feel  the  jerks  and  jars  much  more  than  you. 

73.  To  Reverse  the  Car.     Bring  it  to  a  standstill  first,  then  with  the  clutch  released 
place  the  gear  lever  in  the  reverse  notch.     Allow  the  clutch  to  engage  gently  with  the  left 
hand  only  on  the  steering  wheel,  look  backward  and  gauge  the  direction  by  the  rear  end  of 
the  car. 

74.  Do  not  attempt  to  steer  by  watching  the  front  wheels;  ahva3rs  look  to  the  rear 
when  going  backward,  to  make  sure  the  way  is  clear. 

76.  Turning  in  Narrow  Streets.  WTith  the  car  going  slowly,  first  look  back  to  see 
that  there  is  no  other  vehicle  coming  and  then  turn  the  wheels  sharply  to  the  left  as  far  as 
possible.  When  within  five  feet  or  more  or  less,  depending  upon  the  speed  of  the  car,  of  the 
left  hand  curb,  release  the  clutch  and  apply  the  brake  gently,  at  the  same  time  turning  the 
steering  wheel  quickly  to  the  right. 

76.  •  Stop  turning  the  wheel  when  the  car  is  brought  to  a  standstill.    With  the  clutch 
still  released  and  the  brake  on,  shift  to  the  reverse  gear.    Then  release  the  brake,  accelerate 
vlightly,  let  the  clutch  in  carefully,  and  when  the  car  starts  to  move  continue  turning  the 
Ivheel  to  the  right  or  clockwise. 

77.  This  will  point  the  car  in  the  opposite  direction.     When  going  backward,  look 
toward  the  back  of  the  car  and  also  up  and  down  the  street  to  see  that  no  other  vehicle  is 
approaching.    After  the  car  has  traveled  back  a  sufficient  distance,  release  the  clutch,  take 


DRIVING    THE    CAR  79 

foot  off  of  accelerator  pedal  and  apply  brake,  at  the  same  time  turning  steering  wheel  to  the 
left  until  the  car  stops. 

78.  Then  with  the  clutch  still  released  and  the  brake  still  on,  shift  from  reverse  gear  to 
first  speed  gear.    Take  right  foot  from  brake  pedal  and  accelerate  slightly,  allowing  the  clutch 
to  engaged  gradually,  and  as  soon  as  the  car  starts  to  move,  continue  turning  steering  wheel 
to  the  left  until  the  car  goes  straight  ahead.    Do  not  turn  the  steering  wheel  while  the  car  is 
standing.    Start  to  turn  when  the  car  begins  to  move.    Do  not  allow  tires  to  strike  curb. 

79.  Turning  Corners.     Before  turning  a  corner,  hold  out  the  hand  so  that  any  driver 
behind  you  may  see  it,  and  also  look  back  to  make  sure  that  he  does  see  it.    If  another  ve"hicle 
is  close  behind  you  or  if  there  is  one  in  front  coming  toward  you,  slow  up  your  car  and  wait 
until  it  has  passed  before  turning.    When  turning  a  corner  to  the  right  keep  as  close  to  the 
curb  as  possible,  so  that  the  car  will  be  on  the  righthand  side  when  you  get  into  the  side 
street. 

80.  When  turning  to  the  left,  go  past  the  center  of  the  street  into  which  you  are  travel- 
ing and  then  turn  sharply,  so  that  you  will  be  on  the  right  side  of  the  road.    Do  not  cut  close 
to  the  left  curbs.    Always  go  around  a  corner  at  a  low  enough  speed  to  make  the  use  of  the 
second  speed  gear  necessary  and  reduce  speed  so  that  the  gear  shifting  must  be  done  before 
starting  to  turn,  not  after,  as  this  gives  better  control  of  the  car. 

81.  Turning  corners  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  puts  a  great  strain  on  the  tires  and  causes 
them  to  wear  excessively.     It  is  also  uncomfortable  for  the  passengers.     Use  both  hands  on 
the  steering  wheel,  and  if  the  car  is  found  to  be  going  too  fast,  check  it  by  releasing  the  clutch 
and  applying  the  brake  slightly.     Do  not  shift  gears  before  slowing  the  car.    The  idea  is  to 
slow  the  car  sufficiently  to  make  shifting  to  a  lower  gear  necessary. 

QUESTIONS 

70.  What  should  be  done  first  when  stopping  the  car? 

71.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  when  stopping  along  a  curb? 

72.  How  should  brake  be  applied? 

73.  Give  operations  necessary  to  back  up  a  car. 
75.  Explain  method  of  turning  in  narrow  streets. 
79.  Give  method  of  turning  corners. 

82.  Climbing  Hills.     When  approaching  a  hill  accelerate  and  advance  the  spark,  as 
speeding  up  the  motor  makes  it  more  powerful,  and  adding  momentum  to  the  car  will  often 
carry  it  over  hills  that  would  need  an  intermediate  speed  gear  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  climb 
them  slowly.     As  the  hill  is  reached  open  throttle  fully. 

83.  If  the  engine  begins  to  feel  the  grade  and  labors  or  knocks,  retard  the  spark  until 
the  knocking  or  laboring  ceases.    If  the  hill  is  a  very  steep  one,  as  soon  as  the  engine  begins 
to  lose  speed,  release  the  clutch,  remove  pressure  from  accelerator  and,  without  applying  the 
brake,  shift  to  a  lower  speed  gear. 

84.  Let  clutch  in  quickly  and  at  the  same  time  open  accelerator  wide.     It  will  then 
probably  be  found  that  the  spark  can  be  advanced  without  causing  the  engine  to  knock. 
On  some  hills  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  shift  to  the  first  speed  gear,  but  this  should  not 
be  done  unless  the  engine  will  not  pull  the  car  on  a  higher  gear. 

85.  When  gears  are  shifted  on  a  hill  the  change  must  be  made  quickly  and  the  clutch 
let  in  immediately,  as  slow  work  will  allow  the  car  to  lose  momentum,  and  then  when  the 
clutch  is  engaged  the  engine  will  stall.    If  the  engine  stalls,  put  on  the  emergency  brake  and 
put  gear  lever  in  neutral  notch.    It  will  be  well  to  place  a  stone  or  block  back  of  the  rear  wheels 
before  cranking  the  motor  as  the  vibration  of  the  engine  may  jar  the  emergency  lever  loose. 

86.  In  starting  again,  release  the  clutch,  put  lever  in  first  speed  gear,  accelerate  strongly, 
release  the  emergency  brake  and  at  the  same  time  let  in  the  clutch.    This  must  be  done  quickly, 
otherwise  the  oar  will  start  to  back  down  the  hill. 

87.  With  some  cars  it  may  be  found  easier  when  starting  from  a  standstill  on  a  steep 


80  INFORMATION 

hill  to  apply  the  foot  brake,  release  the  emergency  brake,  engage  the  clutch  while  the  foot 
brake  is  released  gradually,  at  the  same  time  feeding  gas  to  the  engine  with  the  hand  throttle. 
Do  not  attempt  to  climb  steep  hills  until  you  have  thoroughly  mastered  shifting  gears  on  the 
level. 

88.  Descending  Hills.     When  descending  slight  grades  throw  off  the  ignition  switch 
and  leave  the  gear  lever  in  high  speed  with  the  clutch  engaged.    This  will  cause  the  engine 
to  act  as  a  slight  brake  and  if  necessary  the  running  brake  may  be  operated  in  connection  with 
it.    There  is  no  harm  in  applying  the  brake  under  these  conditions  with  the  clutch  engaged, 
because  switching  off  the  ignition  causes  the  engine  to  stop  giving  you  power. 

89.  When  a  very  steep  grade  is  encountered,  before  attempting  to  descend  it,  stop  the 
car  and  shift  to  second  or  first  speed  gear.    The  lower  the  gear  used  the  greater  will  be  the 
breaking  power,  and  when  first  speed  is  used  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  car  to  get  beyond 
control. 

90.  The  ignition  may  be  switched  off  or  on  as  the  occasion  requires.    Switching  it  off 
gives  greater  braking  power.    The  clutch  must  be  left  engaged,  and  the  brakes  may  be  used 
to  help.    It  is  well  to  use  first  one  brake  and  then  the  other  in  descending  long  grades,  as  too 
long  an  application  of  one  will  cause  it  to  heat  and  burn  the  friction  material. 

91.  Do  not  wait  until  you  are  hah"  way  down  the  hill  before  finding  out  that  it  is  too  steep 
for  the  brakes  to  hold  the  car.    Make  up  your  mind  before  starting  to  descend  and  shift  to 
first  gear  if  necessary. 

92.  Do  not  allow  the  brakes  to  get  in  such  condition  that  they  will  not  hold  to  the  best 
of  their  ability.    Never  descend  the  hill  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  no  matter  how  safe  it  looks. 
Brakes  do  not  hold  so  well  when  the  car  is  going  fast  as  they  do  when  it  is  moving  slowly, 
nor  will  they  stop  a  car  as  quickly  going  down  a  grade  as  they  will  going  up. 

QUESTIONS 

82.  Give  best  method  of  climbing  a  hill. 

83.  Give  positions  of  spark  and  throttle. 

84.  How  would  you  shift  gears  on  a  hill? 

88.  Give  best  method  of  descending  a  hill. 

89.  Give  best  use  of  brakes  when  descending  a  hill. 

90.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  when  descending  a  hill? 

94.  Driving  in  Congested  Streets.     Procure  a  copy  of  the  rules  of  the  road  of  the 
city  in  which  you  are  driving  and  obey  them.    Keep  to  the  righthand  curb  unless  it  is  lined 
with  standing  vehicles,  in  which  case  you  keep  close  to  them.    In  overtaking  another  vehicle, 
pass  it  on  its  left.    In  passing  a  vehicle  coming  in  the  opposite  direction  go  to  the  right  of  it. 

95.  When  stopping,  hold  your  hand  out  at  the  side  of  the  car  to  warn  the  man  who 
may  be  behind  you.    Do  not  at  any  time  slow  down  or  stop  without  holding  out  your  hand 
and  looking  back  to  make  sure  that  it  is  seen.    Pedestrians  have  the  right  of  way  at  crossings, 
but  you  may  warn  them  of  your  approach  by  blowing  the  horn. 

96.  However,  do  not  make  a  nuisance  of  yourself  by  using  it  more  than  necessary. 
When  traveling  in  a  side  street,  upon  coming  to  a  main  thoroughfare,  slow  up  so  that  you 
can  stop  quickly,  as  vehicles  on  these  streets  have  the  right  of  way.    When  on  a  main  thor- 
oughfare it  is  not  necessary  to  slow  up  at  any  cross  street. 

97.  Watch  the  traffic  policeman  and  when  one  holds  up  his  hand,  stop,  first  holding  out 
your  hand  to  warn  anyone  behind  you.    Remain  standing  until  the  policeman  motions  you 
to  proceed.     In  some  places  the  policemen  use  whistles  instead  of  motions,  and  the  signals 
used  by  them  should  be  learned. 

98.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  speed  of  the  car  considerable,  release  the 
clutch  and  apply  the  brake.    When  the  car  is  going  slow  enough,  shift  to  a  lower  speed  gear 
to  prevent  stalling  the  motor  when  the  clutch  is  let  in.     When  it  is  found  necessary  to  keep 


DRIVING    THE    CAR  81 

behind  a  slow-moving  vehicle,  shift  to  a  speed  so  low  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  slip  the 
clutch. 

99.  If  it  is  desirable  to  go  slower  than  first  speed  gear,  however,  the  clutch  may  be  slipped 
by  keeping  a  slight  pressure  on  the  clutch  pedal.    A  great  variation  in  speed  may  be  obtained 
when  in  any  gear  by  the  proper  manipulation  of  the  spark  and  throttle  levers. 

100.  Do  not  attempt  to  keep  pace  with  other  vehicles  until  you  are  an  experienced 
driver.    When  in  close  quarters,  perform  every  operation  slowly,  and  a  move  made  slowly  but 
surely  will  probably  take  less  time  than  a  move  made  incorrectly.    There  is  no  occasion  for 
getting  excited,  as  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  every  other  vehicle  is  under  perfect  control. 

101.  Learn  to  shift  gears  without  looking  at  the  lever.     Because  you  will  need 
your  eyes  to  watch  the  road.     Sit  straight  in  the  seat;  do  not  get  hunched  over  the  steering 
wheel,  as  this  indicates  a  novice.    Always  drive  into  the  garage  on  the  first  speed  gear. 

102.  Washing  the  Car.     The  car  should  be  washed  immediately  upon  coming  into 
the  garage,  before  the  mud  has  had  time  to  dry.    Do  not  scour  off  the  mud  as  this  scratches 
the  varnish.    Use  the  hose  with  a  slow  stream  until  the  mud  is  well  loosened  and  then  finish 
by  soaking  (not  rubbing)  off  with  a  sponge  well  wet  with  water. 

103.  Where  a  hose  is  not  procurable  the  mud  may  be  loosened  with  a  wet  sponge  and  then 
washed  off  entirely  by  throwing  pails  of  water  on  it.    Be  careful  that  water  does  not  go  through 
the  radiator  or  any  other  opening  and  get  on  the  engine,  as  this  is  likely  to  short-circuit  the 
magneto  or  spark  plugs  and  prevent  the  motor  from  running. 

104.  If  there  is  grease  on  the  car,  soap  must  be  used  to  remove  it.    Castile  soap  is  best 
for  this  purpose.    However,  do  not  apply  the  soap  itself  to  the  car,  but  make  suds  in  luke- 
warm water. 

105.  After  all  mud  and  grease  has  been  removed,  wipe  dry  with  chamois  skin.    Wash 
and  dry  the  body  before  the  running  gear,_and  be  careful  that  no  grease  is  collected  on  chamois 
from  wheel  bearings  and  steering  arm  joints. 

QUESTIONS 

94.  What  precautions  should  be  taken  when  driving  in  congested  streets? 

95.  When  should  horn  be  used? 

96.  Give  some  signals  of  traffic  police  and  how  to  obey  them. 

102.  Give  method  of  washing  a  car. 

103.  How  should  car  be  washed  to  prevent  scratching  paint? 

104.  Give  method  of  drying  and  polishing  car.  • 

106.  Cautions.     Don't  twist  the  steering  wheel  when  the  car  is  standing.     Corners 
should  be  turned  at  a  slow  speed  to  save  wear  on  tires.    The  brakes  should  not  be  applied 
with  too  much  force  except  in  an  emergency,  as  it  is  hard  on  tires  and  the  machine  in  general. 
Don't  let  the  motor  labor  or  knock  when  ascending  hills. 

107.  \Vhen  going  down  long  hills  use  one  set  of  brakes  and  then  the  other.     Shift  to 
first  speed  gear  before  descending  steep  hills.    Change  from  first  speed  to  reverse  and  from 
reverse  to  first  only  when  the  car  is  standing.    Be  very  careful  of  skidding  on  wet  pavements. 
Put  non-skid  chains  on  for  wet  or  icy  roads.    Always  start  and  stop  the  car  without  a  jerk. 

108.  This  constitutes  good  driving.    Don't  forget  to  see  that  the  license  pad  is  attached 
before  leaving  the  garage.    Inspect  oil,  gasoline,  and  water  tanks  before  making  a  trip,  and 
see  that  the  necessary  tools  and  extra  tires  are  in  the  car. 

109.  Don't  let  the  car  stand  with  the  motor  stopped  in  the  winter  time,  unless  the 
radiator  is  filled  with  anti-freezing  solution.     Look  the  car  over  thoroughly  after  each  run. 

110.  The  records  of  the  examination  held  at  the  school  show  that  there  are  a  few  points 
of  driving  which  a  large  majority  of  the  students  do  not  entirely  master.    This  is  not  due  to 
lack  of  instruction  in  the  subjects,  but  is  rather  the  result  of  poor  memory  or  insufficient 
practice. 


32  INFORMATION 

111.  Failure  to  perform  these  operations  perfectly  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the 
student  is  not  a  safe  driver,  but  it  does  show  that  he  needs  more  practice  before  being  rated 
as  an  expert. 

112.  If  you  want  to  be  a  little  better  than  the  average  driver,  keep  in  mind  the  follow- 
ing points,  go  back  and  read  them  over  again  in  this  booklet,  think  about  them  when  driving 
the  car,  and  try  your  best  to  master  them. 

113.  When  about  to  turn  a  corner,  or  turn  in  a  street,  or  in  fact  whenever  swerving 
from  a  straight  line,  look  back  to  see  if  it  is  safe  to  make  the  turn  and  hold  out  your  hand  to 
signal  what  you  intend  to  do. 

114.  Make  sure  that  the  spark  is  retarded,  the  gear  lever  is  in  neutral,  switch  on,  and 
other  levers  in  their  proper  positions  before  cranking  the  engine. 

115.  When  the  car  has  been  slowed  down  to  a  very  low  speed  for  any  reason,  shift  to  a 
lower  gear;  don't  try  to  pick  up  speed  on  high  gear.    Don't  shift  to  a  lower  gear  until  the  car 
speed  has  been  reduced  sufficiently. 

116.  In  New  York  City  traffic  traveling  north  and  south  has  the  right  of  way;  therefore, 
when  crossing  an  avenue,  go  slowly  and  make  sure  you  will  not  cut  off  vehicles  on  the  avenue. 

117.  When  starting  the  car,  allow  the  clutch  pedal  to  come  back  until  the  clutch  begins 
to  engage,  then  keep  enough  pressure  on  the  pedal  to  allow  it  to  become  fully  engaged  very 
gradually. 

118.  Letting  the  clutch  engage  all  at  once  makes  the  car  jump  or  the  engine  stall,  and 
observers  smile  knowingly.     In  this  connection  you  should  listen  to  the  engine  and  operate 
the  clutch  and  accelerator  so  that  the  engine  is  not  raced  or  stalled. 


SECTION  3 

THE  GAS  ENGINE  FROM  THE  IGNITION 
POINT  OF  VIEW 


The  Gas  Engine  From  the  Ignition  Point 

of  View 

1.  The  Cycle.    Two  or  Four  Cycle  Engines.    Gas  engines  are  divided  into  two  classes 
in  regard  to  the  succession  of  the  events  which  take  place  in  the  cylinders.    These  two  classes 
are:   The  two-cycle  and  the  four-cycle  engine. 

2.  By  the  name  cycle  is  meant  one  complete  rotation  of  events  which  takes  place  over 
and  over  in  an  engine  cylinder  while  the  engine  is  running.    A  cycle  consists  of  four  events: 
an  intake,  a  compression,  an  expansion,  and  an  exhaust.    A  four-cycle  engine,  which  is  the 
class  of  engine  almost  universally  used  in  Automobile  work,  is  one  which  makes  one  stroke 
for  each  event. 

3.  Beginning  with  the  intake  or  suction  stroke,  when  the  charge  of  gasoline  vapor  and 
ah*  is  drawn  into  the  cylinder  through  the  intake  valve,  we  next  have  the  compression  stroke, 
during  which  the  charge  is  being  compressed.    Following  the  compression  stroke  is  the  work- 
ing or  power  stroke,  when  the  explosion  takes  place.    Then  we  have  the  exhaust  stroke,  during 
which  the  piston  forces  the  burned  gases  out  of  the  cylinder  through  the  exhaust  valve. 

4.  This  cycle  of  events  takes  place  over  and  over  in  each  cylinder,  regardless  of  the 
number  of  cylinders,  the  only  difference  being  the  time  of  the  events  in  the  different  cylinders, 
no  two  cylinders  having  the  same  event  taking  place  in  them  at  the  same  time. 

6.  In  the  two-cycle  engine  the  cycle  consists  of  the  same  four  events  as  in  the  four-cycle,  but 
in  this  case  only  two  strokes  are  made  per  cycle,  and  therefore  more  than  ore  event  is  taking 
place  in  the  cylinder  at  once.  On  account  of  the  very  limited  use  of  the  two-cycle  engine, 
space  will  not  be  taken  up  with  its  description  in  this  work. 

6.  Carburetion.    By  carburetion  is  meant  the  mixing  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air.     Gas- 
oline is  not  inflammable,  but  a  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  is  very  inflammable;  in  fact, 
combustion  takes  place  so  rapidly  with  this  mixture  that  it  is  called  an  explosion.    The  energy 
produced  by  the  explosion  resulting  when  a  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and  air  is  ignited  is 
made  use  of  in  driving  a  gasoline  engine. 

7.  In  order  to  get  the  best  results,  the  mixture  should  be  of  the  proper  proportions  of 
air  and  gasoline  vapor.     A  mixture  of  proper  proportions  will  ignite  immediately  and  the 
combustion  will  be  complete,  whereas  in  case  of  a  too  lean  mixture,  or  one  having  too  small 
a  proportion  of  gasoline,  the  expansion  will  be  slow,  and  in  case  of  a  too  rich  mixture,  or  one 
in  which  the  proportion  of  gasoline  is  too  great,  expansion  will  also  be  slow  and  incomplete, 
as  will  be  indicated  by  black  smoke  in  exhaust. 

8.  A  carburetor,  besides  providing  a  mixing  chamber  for  mixing  the  gasoline  vapor  and 
air,  automatically  controls  the  amount  of  each,  so  that  a  proper  mixture  is  provided  for  differ- 
ent speeds  and  loads;  that  is,  if  it  is  properly  adjusted. 

9.  The  carburetor  is  attached  to  the  intake  manifold  of  the  engine,  so  that  the  suction 
from  the  cy Under  on  a  suction  stroke  when  the  intake  valve  is  open  draws  a  current  of  air 
through  the  mixing  chamber  of  the  carburetor.    A  small  pipe,  called  the  spray  nozzle,  pro- 
jects into  this  mixing  chamber,  so  that  the  air  rushing  past  the  opening  in  the  spray  nozzle 
creates  a  suction  and  the  gasoline  is  drawn  out  in  the  form  of  a  spray. 

10.  This  breaking  up  of  the  gasoline  into  a  spray  causes  it  to  vaporize  and  mix  with  the 
air  on  its  way  into  the  cylinder.    The  amount  of  air  that  may  flow  through  the  carburetor 
and  the  quantity  of  gasoline  that  may  flow  out  of  the  spray  nozzle  are  adjustable,  so  that  the 
proper  proportion  of  gasoline  and  air  may  be  maintained. 

84 


THE    GAS    ENGINE 


85 


11.  A  float,  sometimes  composed  of  well  varnished  cork  and  sometimes  of  sheet  metal, 
with  an  air  space  inside,  is  provided  for  automatically  regulating  the  flow  of  gasoline  into  the 
carburetor.     The  pipe  from  the  gasoline  tank  enters  the  float  chamber  and  the  flow  of  gas- 
oline into  this  chamber  is  regulated  by  a  needle  valve. 

12.  This  needle  valve  is  called  the  float  valve,  it  being  connected  to  and  controlled  by 
the  float.    The  float  valve  mechanism  is  adjusted  so  that  when  the  engine  is  not  running  the 
gasoline  level  will  not  quite  reach  the  top  of  the  spray  nozzle  or  jet,  but  may  be  drawn  out 
by  the  suction  of  the  passing  air  current  when  the  engine  is  running.     In  Fig.  1  is  shown  a 
simple  diagram  of  the  carburetor. 


MIXTURE  TO 
CYLINDER 


M/X/N6  CHAMBER 


SPMYNOSSLE 


AJUST/N6 

SCREW 


Fig.  l 


AIR 
MLET 


13.  The  air  is  drawn  through  the  carburetor  on  the  suction  stroke,  enters  through  the 
air  intake,  and  passes  around  the  spray  nozzle,  drawing  gasoline  with  it.     The  level  of  the 
gasoline  in  the  float  chamber  then  drops  and  the  float  also  drops,  opening  the  float  valve  and 
allowing  more  gasoline  to  enter  the  float  chamber. 

14.  At  this  time  the  inlet  valve  to  the  cylinder  must  be  open  to  permit  the  gas  to  be 
drawn  into  the  cylinder,  which  it  is  if  the  piston  is  on  the  suction  or  intake  stroke,  but  on  no 
other  stroke. 

15.  A  gasoline  needle  valve  is  provided  in  the  gasoline  passage  from  the  float  chamber 
to  the  spray  nozzle  or  in  the  spray  nozzle  itself,  for  adjusting  the  amount  of  gasoline  leaving 
the  nozzle. 

16.  A  Throttle  Valve,  usually  placed  in  the  passage  between  the  mixing  tube  and  the 
intake  manifold,  is  used  to  govern  the  amount  of  mixture  entering  the  cylinder.    The  throttle 
valve,  which  is  usually  of  the  butterfly  type,  is  connected  with  the  throttle  lever  on  the  steer- 
ing column,  so  that  the  amount  of  mixture  can  be  regulated  according  to  the  power  required. 

17.  The  simple  form  of  carburetor  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  satisfactory  only  for  an  engine 
which  runs  at  a  steady  and  constant  speed,  for  then  the  rate  of  the  air  through  it  does  not 
change,  and  the  gasoline  may  be  adjusted  to  correspond.    The  speed  of  an  automobile  engine 
is  not  steady,  however,  and  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  air  through  the  carburetor  changes  with 
the  speed  of  the  engine,  increasing  as  the  engine  speed  increases  and  decreasing  as  the  engine 

.speed  decreases. 

18.  The  greater  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  air,  the  more  gasoline  will  be  drawn  out  of  the 
spray  nozzle,  and  the  adjustment  that  will  give  a  correct  mixture  for  a  low  speed  will  give  a 
rich  mixture  at  high  speed. 

19.  Carburetors  for  engines  which  run  at  changing  speeds  are  therefore  made  so  that 


86 


INFORMATION 


an  extra  supply  of  air  is  admitted  when  the  air  current  flows  so  fast  that  it  results  in  too  rich 
a  mixture.  The  extra  supply  of  air  is  admitted  through  an  auxiliary  air  inlet  valve,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2. 


At/Jt/Lll/tRr 


/HR/NLET 


'"LET 


Fig.2 


20.  This  type  is  called  a  compensating  carburetor,  and  is  used  on  practically  all  auto- 
mobiles.   This  auxiliary  air  valve  is  held  in  the  closed  position  by  a  spring  and  is  opened  by 
the  suction  of  the  engine,  so  that  the  amount  of  air  admitted  depends  upon  the  greater  or  less 
suction  that  faster  or  slower  speeds  of  the  engine  give. 

21.  The  gasoline  adjustment  needle  is  provided  on  most  makes  of  carburetors,  and  is 
a  very  important  part  of  the  carburetor.    The  regulation  of  this  valve  is  very  sensitive.    After 
the  carburetor  is  once  adjusted  by  regulating  the  auxiliary  air  valve  and  the  opening  of  this 
gasoline  needle  adjustment  valve,  the  slightest  turn  one  way  or  the  other  way  of  this  valve 
will  make  a  difference  in  the  running  of  the  engine. 

22.  The  type  of  gasoline  needle  valve  shown  in  Fig.  2  is  of  the  hand-operated  type, 
being  adjusted  by  hand  only  occasionally;  other  types  are  the  mechanically-operated  needle 
valve  operated  by  movement  of  the  throttle  by  hand  through  a  cam  arrangement,  and  the 
automatic  mechanically  operated  needle  valve,  operated  by  action  of  the  auxiliary  air  valve. 
These  are  called  metering  pins. 

23.  The  main  air  intake  on  modern  carburetors  is  usually  placed  below  the  jet  or  spray 
nozzle,  at  the  bottom  or  side  of  the  carburetor,  while  the  auxiliary  air  intake  is  usually  above 
the  jet,  and  is  controlled  automatically  by  the  suction  of  the  gas  going  into  the  cylinder. 
The  air  is  drawn  through  the  auxiliary  air  intake  valve,  which  operates  against  a  spring. 
In  some  cases  metal  balls  are  used  for  this  auxiliary  air  valve. 

24.  In  some  carburetors  the  extra  air  inlet  is  arranged  so  that  an  enlargement  of  the 
main  air  intake  is  made  instead  of  having  a  separate  air  intake.    While  this  works  fairly  well, 
it  is  not  as  good  as  if  it  were  placed  so  that  the  extra  air  is  admitted  above  the  spray  nozzle, 
so  lhat  it  dilutes  the  mixture.    The  auxiliary  air  valve  type  of  carburetor  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2  may  be  considered  to-day  the  simplest  form  of  carburetor  which  operates  satisfactorily, 
and  there  are  several  different  models  now  being  manufactured  which  are  based  upon  the 
principle  of  the  auxiliary  air  valve  only. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  two  classes  of  gas  engines. 

2.  Explain  the  term  Cycle. 

3.  Name  the  four  strokes  necessary  to  complete  a  cycle. 


THEGASENGINE  87 

4.  Explain  the  difference  between  two-  and  four-cycle  engines. 

6.  What  is  carburetor? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  too  lean  a  mixture?     Too  rich? 

8.  Explain  fully  the  function  of  a  carburetor. 

9.  To  what  is  the  carburetor  attached? 

10.  In  what  form  does  the  gasoline  enter  the  mixing  chamber? 

11.  How  is  the  flow  of  the  gasoline  to  the  mixing  chamber  regulated? 

12.  What  should  be  the  height  of  the  gasoline  in  the  carburetor? 

13.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  carburetor  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

14.  Would  this  carburetor  be  suitable  for  automobile  work? 

15.  How  is  gasoline  to  spray  nozzle  regulated? 

16.  Give  use  and  operation  of  throttle  valve? 

17.  Explain  operation  of  carburetor  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

18.  What  type  of  carburetor  is  most  commonly  used? 

23.  Give  location  of  main  and  auxiliary  intake. 

24.  Why  should  auxiliary  intake  be  above  spray  nozzle? 

25.  Relation  of  Acceleration  to  Gasoline  Consumption.     The  rapid  advance  of 
high-speed  and  multiple  cylinder  engines  has  demanded  quicker  acceleration;  that  is,  quicker 
"get  away"  or  "pick  up."     This  calls  for  a  sudden  greater  amount  of  gasoline  or  a  higher 
percentage  of  gasoline  to  air.     Quick  acceleration,  therefore,  demands  a  surplus  of  gasoline 
for  but  a  brief  period,  after  which  the  normal  supply  will  care  for  the  engine. 

26.  To  meet  this  sudden  demand  for  gasoline  the  added  nozzle  or  multiple  jet  has  been 
introduced  by  some  makers,  so  that  when  the  suddenly  opened  throttle  brings  the  auxiliary 
air  valve  into  use  the  valve  in  turn  brings  more  gasoline  into  the  mixture — an  added  supply. 

27.  The  Dash  Pot.    One  method  of  doing  this  is  by  meajis  of  a  dash  pot  on  the  auxiliary 
air  valve  stem,  this  dash  pot  performing  a  regular  pump  stroke  and  forcing  gasoline  into  the 
mixing  chamber  by  way  of  a  separate  nozzle  as  the  auxiliary  valve  opens.    When  the  auxiliary 
valve  is  once  open,  the  pumping  action  ceases,  but  the  nozzle  remains  open  for  a  more  even 
demand  for  more  fuel. 

28.  The  Metering  Pin.     Another  method  is  by  use  of  the  metering  pin.     In  some 
cases  the  throttle  is  connected  with  the  needle  valve  and  the  spray  nozzle,  so  that  by  a  care- 
fully computed  cam  action  it  is  possible  to  give  a  sudden  lift  of  the  needle  and  thus  give  the 
desired  fuel  supply  quickly.    In  other  makes  of  carburetors  the  auxiliary  air  valve  is  connected 
with  the  needle  valve  in  the  nozzle,  so  that  as  the  air  valve  opens  there  is  a  larger  nozzle  open- 
ing for  the  flow  of  gasoline.     This  principle  is  called  the  metering  pin  method. 

29.  Proportions  of  Air  and  Gasoline.     The  basis  of  all  these  methods  of  providing 
for  acceleration  is  the  accepted  belief  that  in  carburetion  different  mixtures  of  air  and  gasoline 
are  needed  for  different  engine  requirements.    It  is  no  longer  the  belief  that  a  uniform  mixture 
is  correct  for  all  speeds. 

30.  The  new  rule  is  that  the  amount  of  gasoline  fed  into  the  air  must  be  changed  ac- 
cording to  demands,  and  that  if  a  12  to  1  or  rich  mixture  is  best  for  quick  acceleration;  that  a 
15  to  1  or  leaner  mixture  may  be  best  for  pulling  with  the  throttle  wide  open,  and  a  17  to  1 
or  still  leaner  mixture  for  particularly  high-speed  work.    Therefore  a  varying  mixture  must  be 
supplied. 

31.  Example  of  Carburetor  with  Both  Metering  Pin  and  the  Dash  Pot.    The 
Rayfield  carburetor  has  two  spray  nozzles,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  a  needle  valve  or 
metering  pin.    The  metering  pin  in  the  main  nozzle  is  connected  by  a  combination  of  levers 
with  the  throttle  valve,  and  opens  as  the  throttle  opens.     The  metering  pin  in  the  auxiliary 
nozzle  is  actuated  by  the  auxiliary  air  valve.    A  pumping  action  is  also  exerted  on  the  gas- 
oline in  the  auxiliary  nozzle,  whereby  a  very  rich  mixture  is  furnished  for  acceleration  when- 
ever the  air  valve  is  suddenly  opened. 

32.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  piston  on  the  lower  end  of  the  air  valve  stem,  which  works 
in  a  dash  pot  filled  with  gasoline.    The  gasoline  flows  from  the  float  chamber  through  a  passage, 


88 

enters  the  dash  pot  above  the  piston  and  is  admitted  to  the  space  below  the  piston  by  a  disk 
valve  in  the  piston.  When  the  auxiliary  air  valve  suddenly  opens,  forcing  the  piston  down- 
ward, the  disk  valve  is  closed,  forcing  the  gasoline  upward  through  the  auxiliary  nozzle  and 
spraying  it  into  the  inrushing  air. 

33.  Only  while  the  valve  is  opening  does  this  pumping  action  take  place,  and  at  other 
times  the  gasoline  issues  through  the  auxiliary  nozzle  according  to  the  suction  of  the  engine. 
Thus  the  Rayfield  is  a  combination  of  two  pins  in  conjunction  with  the  pumping  function  of 
the  dash  pot  for  quick  acceleration  or  pick-up. 

34.  Priming  the  Carburetor.    It  is  sometimes  necessary,  especially  in  cold  weather, 
to  prime  a  carburetor  before  starting  the  engine.    This  is  accomplished  in  two  different  ways: 
one  by  depressing  the  float  by  hand,  so  that  the  float  valve  will  open  and  admit  a  flood  of 
gasoline  to  the  carburetor;  the  other  by  closing  a  valve  in  the  air  intake,  thereby  causing  an 
increased  suction  of  gasoline.    This  latter  is  called  choking  the  carburetor. 

35.  Carburetor  Heating.     Gasoline  vaporizes  more  readily  when  warm  than  cold, 
therefore  it  is  advisable  to  provide  some  means  of  furnishing  heat  to  the  carburetor.     The 
most  effective  temperature  seems  to  be  about  170  degrees  Fahr.     This  heating  the  mixture 
adds  greatly  to  economy  of  fuel  by  more  thorough  vaporization. 

36.  There  are  several  methods  of  applying  heat  to  the  mixture,  some  of  which  are: 

(a)  By  passing  hot  water  from  the  water  circulation  system  through  the  water  jacket 
of  the  carburetor  or  intake  manifold. 

(b)  By  passing  exhaust  gases  from  the  exhaust  pipe  through  the  water  jacket  instead 
of  the  water. 

(c)  By  taking  hot  air  from  around  the  exhaust  pipe  and  passing  it  through  the  main 
air  intake  of  carburetor. 

(d)  By  heating  the  mixture  electrically  before  it  passes  into  the  cylinders.     This  is 
done  by  placing  an  electric  heating  coil  around  the  carburetor. 

37.  Adjustment  of  the  Carburetor.    A  carburetor  should  never  be  tampered  with 
as  long  as  it  is  working  properly.     Test  for  motor  compression:   See  that  there  is  good  hot 
spark  occurring  in  each  cylinder  at  the  right  time  and  plenty  of  gasoline.     The  carburetor 
should  be  the  last  thing  to  touch.    If  the  motor  refuses  to  start,  first  flood  or  prime  the  car- 
buretor; if  gasoline  does  not  appear,  look  for  a  leak  or  obstruction  in  the  gasoline  feed  pipe, 
a  closed  shut-off  valve,  a  dirty  strainer,  or  clogged  spray  nozzle. 

38.  If  a  carburetor  floods  or  leaks  gasoline  when  the  car  is  standing,,  look  for  an  obstruc- 
tion under  the  float  valve,  a  leak  at  one  of  the  connections,  or  a  leaking  float.    If  the  motor 
starts,  but  a  popping  noise  occurs  in  the  carburetor  when  the  throttle  is  suddenly  opened,  it 
indicates  a  lean  mixture.    Open  the  gasoline  needle  valve  slightly.    If  the  motor  runs  sluggishly, 
with  a  black  smoke  at  the  exhaust,  it  indicates  too  rich  a  mixture.     Close  the  needle  valve 
slightly.     If  the  motor  refuses  to  idle  properly,  or  lacks  "ginger"  or  "pep"  at  high  speed, 
close  the  air  adjustment  slightly,  and  if  not  already  too  rich  at  low  speed,  the  gasoline  may 
also  be  opened  slightly  by  turning  to  the  left. 

39.  Parts  to  Adjust.     The  three  principal  parts  of  a  carburetor  used  for  making  ad- 
justments are:  the  auxiliary  valve,  the  gasoline  needle  valve,  and  the  float  mechanism. 

40.  Float  Adjustment.     When  a  carburetor  drips  it  usually  indicates  that  the  float 
or  float  valve  mechanism  is  out  of  adjustment  or.  the  float  is  leaking,  so  that  the  gasoline 
reaches  too  high  a  level,  resulting  in  an  overflow  at  the  spray  nozzle.    The  adjustments  for 
this  are:  see  that  the  float  valve  seats  properly,  that  the  mechanism  is  properly  adjusted  to 
bring  the  gasoline  level  about  }i"  or  less  below  the  top  of  nozzle,  and  if  float  leaks  to  repair  it. 

41.  Auxiliary  Air  Valve  Adjustment.     The  needle  valve  should  be  set  for  slowest 
running,  with  the  air  valve  held  firmly  against  its  seat,  and  then  the  spring  adjustment  should 
be  backed  off  until  the  slightest  further  increase  in  throttle  opening  causes  the  valve  to  leave 
its  seat.    The  adjustment  from  here  on  is  that  of  spring  strength.    Too  strong  a  spring  will 
cause  too  rich  a  mixture,  because  the  valve  will  be  more  difficult  to  open  by  suction. 

42.  Too  weak  a  spring  will  give  too  much  air  or  too  lean  a  mixture.    The  hand  air  ad- 


THE    GAS    EXGIXE  89 

justment  is  very  popular.  This  consists  of  a  valve  in  the  air  intake  operated  by  hand  from  the 
steering  column.  By  the  use  of  this  hand  adjustment  more  air  can  be  admitted 'as  the  engine 
heats  up  and  requires  a  leaner  mixture. 

QUESTIONS 

25.  What  is  meant  by  Acceleration? 

26.  Give  operation  of  the  Dash  Pot. 

27.  Explain  the  operation  of  Metering  Pin  method. 

28.  Should  the  proportion  of  gasoline  and  air  always  be  the  same? 

29.  Give  example  showing  proportion. 

30.  Explain  operation  of  carburetor  described  in  paragraphs  31,  32,  and  33. 

34.  What  is  meant  by  priming  a  Carburetor?     Why  necessary? 

35.  What  effect  does  heating  have  on  the  operation  of  Carburetor? 

36.  Give  four  methods  of  heating. 

37.  What  would  cause  carburetor  to  run  dry  when  there  was  plenty  of  gasoline  in  the  tank? 

38.  What  would  cause  carburetor  to  flood  or  leak? 

39.  Name  parts  of  carburetor  to  adjust. 

40.  Give  proper  adjustment  of  the  float. 

41.  Give  proper  adjustment  of  the  auxiliary  air  valve. 

42.  Explain  method  of  adjusting  average  carburetor. 

43.  Adjusting  the  Average  Carburetor.     Carburetors  are  usually  adjusted  to  the 
best  advantage  when  the  engine  has  been  run  and  all  parts  are  warmed  up.    Even  if  the  car- 
buretor is  properly  adjusted  an  engine  will  not  hit  just  right  when  starting,  especially  in  cold 
weather;  it  will  miss  and  not  run  evenly  or  smoothly  until  it  has  run  a  few  minutes  and  is 
warmed  up. 

44.  For  the  average  carburetor  having  an  auxiliary  air  valve  and  a  needle  valve  adjust- 
ment, the  following  rules  for  adjusting  will  apply: 

First.  Run  the  engine  at  what  will  be  nearly  maximum  speed  in  ordinary  use,  with  the 
throttle  well  open  and  the  spark  rather  late.  This  speed  of  course  will  be  considerably  less 
than  the  maximum  speed  of  the  engine  when  running  idle. 

Second.  Then  turn  the  mam  gasoline  adjustment  until  the  mixture  is  so  weak  there  is 
a  popping  in  the  carburetor. 

Third.  Note  this  position  and  then  turn  the  adjustment  till  so  much  gas  is  fed  that  the 
engine  chokes  and  threatens  to  stop. 

Fourth.  Set  the  adjustment  half  way  between  these  iwo  points,  which  will  be  very  close 
to  the  correct  position.  Turn  the  adjustment  first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other  until 
the  point  is  found  where  the  engine  seems  to  run  the  fastest  and  smoothest. 

Fifth.  Gently  and  gradually  cover  the  auxiliary  air  inlet  of  the  carburetor  by  placing 
the  hand  over  it,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air.  If  the  engine  slows  down,  the  spring 
should  be  weakened,  since  not  enough  air  is  allowed  to  enter  the  carburetor. 

Sixth.  Next  try  opening  the  air  inlet  slowly  and  gradually  by  pushing  the  poppet  off 
its  seat  with  the  finger  or  the  end  of  a  pencil.  If  the  engine  speeds  up  there  was  not  enough 
air  and  the  spring  should  be  loosened,  while  if  it  slows  down  the  mixture  is  correct  or  a  little 
too  lean,  according  to  the  degree  to  which  the  speed  is  affected.  If  it  is  found  to  be  too  lean 
the  spring  needs  tightening. 

Seventh.  After  the  air  inlet  has  been  adjusted,  open  the  throttle  again  and  adjust  at 
high  speed,  as  the  adjustment  may  now  need  to  be  altered. 

VALVES  AND  VALVE  TIMING 

45.  There  are  at  least  two  valves  for  each  cylinder  in  all  four-cycle  gasoline  engines: 
an  inlet  valve  and  an  exhaust  valve.    Some  four-cycle  engines  have  four  valves  for  each  cyl- 
inder, two  inlet  valves  and  two  exhaust. 

46.  There  are  three  types  of  the  valves  in  use — the  poppet,  sleeve,  and  rotary.    The 
poppet  type  is  the  one  in  general  use,  and  we  will  confine  ourselves  to  .a  discussion  of  it  only. 


90  INFO  R  M  A  T  I  O  X 

47.  The  Inlet  Valve  admits  fresh  gas  to  the  cylinder,  and  since  fresh  gas  is  taken  into 
the  cylinder  during  only  one  stroke  of  every  four,  or,  in  other  words,  during  one  stroke  for  every 
two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft,  the  inlet  valve  is  open  during  only  one  stroke  in  every  four. 

48.  The  Exhaust  Valve  permits  the  burned  and  useless  gases  to  escape,  and  it  too  must 
be  open  during  one  stroke  of  every  four. 

49.  Mechanically  operated  valves  are  opened  and  held  open  by  means  of  cams  on  a 
shaft  which  is  geared  to  the  engine  crank  shaft.    This  shaft  is  called  the  cam  shaft,  and  gears 
which  drive  it  are  called  timing  gears.    The  exhaust  valves  are  always  mechanically  operated, 
except  on  some  of  the  old  engines. 

50.  The  valves  of  a  gasoline  engine  always  open  inwardly,  so  that  the  pressure  from  the 
power  and  compression  strokes  tends  to  keep  them  firmly  on  their  seats. 

51.  Types  of  Engines  using  Poppet  Valves  are  the  "T"  head  engine,  the  "L"  head  engine, 
and  the  overhead  valve  or  "valve  in  the  head"  engine. 

52.  In  the  "T"  head  engine  two  pockets  are  provided  at  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  one 
on  each  side,  with  the  inlet  valve  in  one  pocket  and  the  exhaust  in  the  other  pocket.    There 
are  two  cam  shafts  in  this  type  of  engine,  one  on  one  side  for  operating  the  intake  valves, 
and  one  on  the  other  side  for  operating  the  exhaust  valves. 

53.  In  the  "L"  head  engine  there  is  only  one  pocket,  with  both  the  exhaust  and  inlet 
valves  placed  in  it.    The  cams  for  operating  the  intake  as  well  as  those  for  operating  the  ex- 
haust valves  are  on  one  cam  shaft. 

54.  In  case  of  the  valve  in  the  head  engine  there  are  no  pockets,  and  both  valves  are 
placed  in  the  cy Under  head,  one  cam  shaft  being  provided,  as  in  the  "L"  head  engine. 

55.  Different  methods  for  operating  Poppet  Valves  are:     (1)  by  a  plunger  or  tapper; 
(2)  by  an  overhead  rocker  arm;  (3)  by  an  overhead  cam. 

56.  The  valves  in  "T"  and  "L"  head  engines  are  operated  by  a  plunger  or  tapper  which 
comes  in  contact  with  the  valve  stem  and  raises  the  valve.    The  tappet  is  actuated  by  the  cam 
on  the  cam  shaft,  and  is  adjustable  as  to  length  in  order  to  take  care  of  wear. 

57.  Overhead  valves  are  operated  in  some  cases  by  tappets  through  a  rocker  arm  which 
extends  over  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  in  other  cases  by  an  overhead  cam  shaft  which  ex- 
tends along  the  top  of  the  cylinders. 

58.  Valve  Construction.    There  are  three  different  valve  constructions:  (1)  the  "side 
or  pocket  type";  (2)  the  "cage"  type;  (3)  "the  detachable"  cylinder  head  type. 

59.  The  "side  or  pocket  type"  valve  is  always  placed  on  the  side,  and  can  be  removed 
from  its  seat  by  lifting  it  through  the  valve  cap  opening,  but  it  must  be  ground  in  its  seat  in 
the  cylinder. 

60.  The  "Cage"  type  is  made  detachable,  so  that  it  can  be  screwed  into  or  out  of  the 
cylinder  head.    It  can  be  removed  with  its  valve  seat  for  grinding  or  repairs.    The  "detachable 
cylinder  head"  type:   The  head  of  the  cylinder  must  be  removed  in  order  to  grind  or  remove 
the  valve. 

61.  Valve  Timing.    Since  the  valvas  are  open  during  only  one  stroke  out  of  every  four, 
or  one  stroke  during  two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  since  the  cams  open  the  valves, 
it  is  evident  that  the  cam  shaft  must  be  driven  at  a  speed  equal  to  half  crank  shaft  speed,  or, 
in  other  words,  must  make  one  revolution  to  two  of  the  crank  shaft.    It  is  also  evident  that 
the  cams  must  be  placed  on  the  same  shaft  in  such  a  position  that  each  valve  is  opened  at  the 
proper  time  and  held  open  for  the  proper  length  of  time.    Valve  clearance  must  be  made  be- 
fore setting  the  time  of  valves. 

62.  Valve  Clearance  means  the  distance  between  the  end  of  the  valve  stem  and  the  end 
of  tappet  when  the  valve  is  seated.    When  an  engine  becomes  noisy  and  a  clicking  sound  is 
heard,  the  trouble  is  likely  to  be  that  the  valves  and  valve  stems  have  worn  considerably, 
or  the  adjustment  nut  on  end  of  tappet  has  become  loose. 

63.  This  adjustment  can  usually  be  made  by  screwing  up  the  adjustment  screw  and 
then  locking  the  position  with  lock  nut.    Ordinarily  the  clearance  is  from  .003"  to  .005". 


THEGASENGINE  91 

64.  After  valves  have  just  been  ground,  give,  say  1-64"  clearance;  then  after  car  has 
been  run  about  20  miles  and  engine  is  well  warmed  up,  give  the  final  adjustment.  If,  when 
final  adjustment  is  made  an  ordinaiy  sheet  of  paper  can  be  easily  passed  between  valve  stem 
and  tappet,  it  should  be  about  right. 

66.  If  valves  become  pitted  and  leak,  they  need  grinding;  and  if  they  are  warped  or 
shoulders  form  in  the  seat,  then  the  valve  and  seat  should  be  refaced. 

66.  Valve  Opening  and  Closing.    The  cams  are  so  placed  on  the  cam  shaft  that  the 
valves  are  opened  at  the  correct  time,  held  open  the  proper  length  of  time,  and  closed  at  the 
proper  time. 

67.  Inlet  Valve  Opening.     If  one  of  the  cams  raises  an  inlet  valve  just  as  the  piston 
is  starting  down  on  the  suction  stroke,  a  charge  of  gas  will  be  drawn  into  the  cylinder  as  long 
as  the  piston  is  on  the  suction  stroke  and  the  valve  is  open.    The  valve  should  therefore  open 
in  time  to  give  the  piston  a  chance  to  draw  in  a  cylinder  full  of  gas. 

68.  If  the  valves  were  to  open  kte  in  the  stroke  a  full  cylinder  of  gas  would  not  be  drawn 
in,  and  the  power  of  the  motor  would  be  less  than  what  it  should  be.    The  inlet  valve  timing 
gear  is  used  for  timing  the  inlet  valve  to  open  at  the  right  time,  this  being  done  by  meshing 
the  gears  at  the  right  place. 

69.  The  practice  is  to  allow  the  piston  to  descend  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  the  cyl- 
inder on  the  suction  stroke  before  the  inlet  valve  opens,  so  as  to  reduce  the  pressure  and  create, 
if  anything,  a  suction  before  admitting  the  gas. 

70.  Inlet  Valve  Closing.     It  is  almost  a  universal  practice  to  leave  the  inlet  valve 
open  until  the  piston  has  not  merely  reached  the   bottom  of   the  stroke,  but  has  actually 
traveled  slightly  up  again  on  the  compression  stroke.    It  would  seem  that  part  of  the  gas  would 
be  forced  out  of  the  cylinder,  but  this  is  not  the  case,  as  the  high  speed  at  which  the  piston 
is  traveling  causes  the  suction  to  continue  for  a  short  tune  on  the  compression  stroke. 

71.  This  will  of  course  vary  with  the  speed  of  the  engine,  so  that  a  certain  valve  setting 
will  not  be  correct  for  all  speeds,  since  if  the  inlet  valve  is  closed  at  the  correct  time  for  slow 
speed  it  will  close  too  early  for  higher  speeds  and  less  gas  will  be  drawn  in  than  would  be  with 
correct  setting. 

72.  However  there  is  an  average  speed  for  all  engines,  and  the  valves  are  set  to  it  ac- 
cordingly.   This  average  speed  on  most  engines  is  approximately  1,000  revolutions  per  minute. 

73.  Exhaust  Valve  Opening.    The  exhaust  valve  must  open  considerably  before  the 
piston  reaches  the  end  of  the  expansion  stroke,  and  although  this  may  waste  some  of  the 
force  of  the  explosion,  it  is  amply  compensated  for  by  the  freedom  afforded  the  piston  in 
connecting  the  exhaust  stroke. 

74.  It  would  be  wrong  to  keep  the  exhaust  valve  closed  up  to  the  very  moment  when 
the  piston  is  about  to  move  upward,  for  on  commencing  the  exhaust  stroke,  the  piston  would 
be  confronted  for  an  instant  with  the  force  that  had  just  driven  it  down,  and  until  the  valve 
was  wide  open  it  would  be  considerably  impeded  on  "its  journey." 

76.  The  exhaust  valve  is  usually  opened  when  the  piston  has  moved  through  about 
seven-eighths  of  the  power  stroke;  that  is,  about  half  an  inch  from  bottom  of  dead  center. 
Exhaust  valves  opening  too  early,  however,  cause  pounding  and  clatter. 

76.  Exhaust  Valve  Closing.    The  exhaust  valve  must  not  close  before  the  end  of  the 
exhaust  stroke,  on  account  of  the  gas  which  remains  in  the  cylinder  head  being  slightly  under 
pressure  at  the  end  of  the  stroke.     The  valve  is  often  allowed  to  remain  open  until  the  piston 
has  moved  about  1-20"  down  on  the  suction  stroke,  so  as  to  give  full  opportunity  for  as  much 
exhaust  gas  to  escape  as  possible. 

77.  Periods  of  Time  Valves  are  Open.    Valves  are  timed  in  degrees;  that  is,  one  rev- 
olution of  the  crank  or  flywheel  can  be  divided  up  into  360  degrees  the  same  as  a  circle;  then 
we  can  speak  of  a  whole  revolution  of  crank  shaft  as  360  degrees,  a  half  revolution  as  180 
degrees,  and  one-quarter  of  a  resolution  as  90  degrees.     It  is  evident,  then,  that  one  stroke 
of  the  piston  will  represent  180  degrees  on  the  flywheel,  and  two  strokes  will  represent  360 
degrees. 


92  INFORMATION 

78.  In  this  manner  we  can  speak  of  piston  travel  and  the  relation  of  valve  movements 
or  time  of  opening  and  closing  of  valves  to  piston  travel  in  degrees,  and  if  we  wish  can  mark 
the  positions  of  top  and  bottom  dead  centers  on  the  flywheel  and  the  time  of  valve  opening 
in  degrees  as  referred  to  these  markings. 

79.  The  time  the  valves  are  usually  held  open  and  time  of  opening  and  closing  are  shown 
in  Fig.  3. 

QUESTIONS 

45.  Give  number  and  names  of  valves  employed  in  four-cycle  engines. 

46.  Give  three  kinds  of  valves. 

47.  What  kind  is  best? 

48.  Give  use  and  operation  of  intake  and  exhaust  valves. 

49.  What  causes  the  valves  to  open  and  close? 

50.  Why  must  the  valves  open  inwardly? 

51.  Give  types  of  engines  using  Poppet  valves. 

52.  Where  are  valves  located  in  "T"  head  engines? 

53.  Where  are  valves  located  in  "L"  head  engines? 

55.  Give  three  methods  of  operating  poppet  valves. 

56.  How  are  valves  operated  in  "T"  and  "L"  head  engines? 

58.  Name  three  different  kinds  of  valve  construction. 

59.  Give  location  of  each. 

61.  Why  is  valve  timing  necessary? 

62.  What  is  meant  by  valve  clearance?    Why  necessary? 

63.  Give  average  valve  clearance. 

66.  What  is  meant  by  valve  opening  and  closing? 

67.  When  should  the  intake  valve  open? 
70.  When  should  the  intake  valve  close? 
74.  When  should  the  exhaust  valve  open? 
76.  When  should  the  exhaust  valve  close? 

79.     Describe  valve  opening,  time  held  open,  and  valve  closing,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

80.  In  practice  the  inlet  valve  is  seldom  opened  on  top  of  dead  center,  but  from  five 
to  fifteen  degrees  later  in  the  stroke,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3A.    It  is  also  customary  to  have  the 
inlet  to  close  from  5  to  28  degrees  after  the  bottom,  Fig.  3B ;  the  exhaust  valve  to  open  from 
40  to  50  degrees  before  the  bottom,  Fig.  3C,  and  the  exhaust  valve  to  close  from  5  to  10  de- 
grees after  top  of  dead  center,  Fig.  3D. 

81.  The  time  that  a  valve  is  held  open  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  nose  of  the  cam. 
The  nose  of  the  inlet  cam  is  usually  shorter  on  its  length  of  face  than  the  exhaust  cam,  on 
account  of  the  exhaust  cam  holding  the  valve  open  longer  than  the  inlet  cam  holds  the  inlet 
valve  open. 

82.  Valve  Timing  Position.    The  position  of  the  crank  shaft  determines  the  position 
of  the  piston,  and  the  position  of  the  piston  determines  the  point  where  the  valve  is  set  to 
open  or  close.    Therefore  the  cam  shaft  must  be  so  placed  that  the  cam  will  raise  the  valve 
when  piston  is  at  a  certain  position.     This  is  accomplished  by  meshing  the  cam  gear  with 
crank  shaft  gear  when  piston  is  in  correct  position. 

83.  Setting  Valves  on  a  Single  Cylinder  Engine.    Suppose  the  valves  on  a  single 
cylinder  engine  are  to  be  set  with  exhaust  to  close  on  dead  center  and  inlet  to  open  when  the 
piston  is  W  after  top  dead  center  on  suction  stroke. 

84.  Setting  Exhaust  Valve.    Place  piston  (by  turning  crank  shaft)  on  top  dead  center, 
then  mesh  exhaust  cam  gear  with  crank  gear,  so  that  exhaust  valve  is  just  seating. 

85.  Setting  Inlet  Valve.     Move  piston  down  yi"  from  top  dead  center;  mesh  inlet 
cam  gear  with  crank  shaft  gear. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  inlet  opens  and  suction  stroke  begins  right  after  exhaust  closes. 


THE    GAS    ENGINE 


93 


Fig.  3 

Therefore  the  closing  of  the  exhaust  and  opening  of  the  inlet  is  the  point  to  work  from  a  single 
cylinder  engine. 

86.  Setting  Valves  on  a  Multiple  Cylinder  Engine.     Setting 'the  valves  or  timing 
a  multiple  cylinder  engine  is  identically  the  same  operation  as  timing  a  single  cylinder  engine. 

87.  If  it  is  a  four-cylinder  engine,  the  crank  shaft  is  made  so  that  pistons  1  and  4  are  in 
line  and  directly  opposite  pistons  2  and  3,  which  are  also  in  line.    That  is,  pistons  1  and  4 
will  be  on  one  dead  center  when  pistons  2  and  3  are  on  the  other  dead  center.    If  it  is  a  six- 
cylinder  engine,  pistons  1  and  6  are  in  line  and  3  and  4  are  in  line,  also  2  and  5. 

88.  If  cylinders  are  "L"  type  or  valve-in-head  type,  there  is  only  one  cam  shaft  to  set, 
and  the  timing  is  done  from  only  one  cylinder,  usually  the  one  next  to  radiator,  called  No.  1. 

89.  If  cylinders  are  "T"  type,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  set  the  inlet  cam  shaft  sep- 
arately, but  it  is  necessary  only  to  set  valves  in  one  cylinder,  as  the  other  cams  are  fastened 
permanently  on  the  cam  shaft,  and  must  open  and  close  all  other  valves  at  the  correct  time. 

90.  It  is  therefore  not  necessary  to  set  the  cams  on  cam  shaft,  but  by  meshing  the  cam 
gear  in  front  of  the  engine  with  the  drive  gear,  the  position  of  the  nose  of  the  cam  can  be  ad- 
justed.   The  usual  plan  is  to  place  piston  of  No.  1  cylinder  at  the  top  of  its  stroke  and  work 
from  that  point. 

91.  Timing  by  Marks  on  Flywheel.    Usually  marks  appear  on  the  circumference  of 
the  flywheel,  which  indicate  position  in  which  crank  shaft  is  to  be  placed  for  correct  setting  of 
valves.    A  center  mark  is  usually  placed  on  the  cylinder  or  elsewhere,  and  the  marks  on  fly- 
wheel placed  in  line  with  it. 

92.  If  there  are  no  marks,  then  it  will  first  be  necessary  to  determine  where  you  wish 
to  set  the  valves. 

93.  Timing  a  "T"  Head  Engine.    Suppose  we  have  a  "T"  head  four-cylinder  engine, 
and  wish  to  time  the  valves  as  follows:    Exhaust  to  close  2}4  degrees  past  upper  dead  center. 
Inlet  to  open  10  degrees  past  upper  dead  center. 

94.  In  actual  practice  this  is  really  all  that  is  necessary  to  know,  as  the  other  points  of 
opening  and  closing  will  be  taken  care  of  by  the  other  cams  on  the  cam  shaft. 


94  INFORMATION 

95.  Procedure  of  Marking  Flywheel.    Place  No.  1  piston  exactly  on  top  dead  center. 
Now-  make  a  line  on  face  of  flywheel  and  mark  it  "1-4  UP,"  moaning  pistons  1  and  4  are  on 
upper  dead  center.    Next  measure  2>£  degrees  from  this  line  to  the  right  and  make  another 
mark  on  the  flywheel;  mark  it  "E  C",  meaning  exhaust  closed. 

96.  Now  make  another  line  10  degrees  from  the  dead  center  line  to  the  right  on  flywheel; 
mark  this  "I  O,"  meaning  inlet  opens.    Note  that  you  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  rear  of  the 
engine,  facing  flywheel,  and  engine  is  supposed  to  revolve  counter-clockwise  as  you  look  at  it. 

97.  Setting  Exhaust  Cam.     Now  turn  flywheel  slightly  until  line  marked  "E  C"  is 
in  line  with  mark  on  cylinder.    At  this  point  piston  is  2>£  degrees  down  (measured  on  flywheel 
in  direction  of  rotation  from  top).    Take  exhaust  cam  gear  out  of  mesh  with  crank  shaft  gear; 
turn  exhaust  cam  in  direction  of  rotation  (opposite  of  crank  shaft),  place  exhaust  cam  at  closing 
point.    Mesh  exhaust  cam  gear  and  exhaust  valves  are  timed. 

98.  Setting  Inlet  Cam.     Next  turn  flywheel  to  left  until  line  "I  O"  is  in  line  with 
center  mark  on  cylinder.    Take  inlet  gear  out  of  mesh  and  turn  inlet  cam  shaft  in  direction  of 
rotation  until  it  is  just  at  the  point  of  opening.    Mesh  gears  and  inlet  valves  are  timed. 

99.  Timing  Valves  on  "L"  Head  Type  of  Engine.    Only  one  cam  need  be  set  when 
all  valves  are  on  one  side  or  in  the  head  of  cylinders,  and  all  cams  are  on  one  cam  shaft,  as  is 
the  case  with  "L"  head  and  "valve-in-head"  engines. 

100.  The  usual  plan  is  to  place  No.  1  piston  in  the  position  where  exhaust  valve  is  to  be 
closed,  and  mesh  the  cam  shaft  gear  at  this  point.    Although  it  is  only  necessary  to  set  the 
exhaust  cam  so  the  exhaust  valve  will  close,  on  all  "L"  type  engines  there  are  other  marks 
which  are  used  for  checking  the  timing. 

101.  As  an  example,  the  Regal  four-cylinder  engine,  with  timing  scale  as  follows:    Dead 
center  of  cylinders  1  and  4  are  marked  on  flywheel  "1-4  dead  center."     Intake  valve  opens 
5  degrees  past  top  center,  marked  on  flywheel  "1-4  I  N  opens."    Intake  valve  closes  40  degrees 
past  bottom  center  marked  "1-4  I  N  closes."    Exhaust  valve  opens  40  degrees  before  bottom 
center  marked  on  flywheel  "1-4  E  X  opens."    Exhaust  valve  closes  7  degrees  past  top  center 
marked  on  flywheel  "1-4  E  X  closed."    The  same  marks  appear  for  cylinders  two  and  three. 

102.  Checking  the  Valve  Timing.    The  purpose  of  checking  the  valves  is  to  see  that 
they  are  opening  and  closing  as  marked  on  the  flywheel. 

103.  To  determine  whether  or  not  the  valves  are  properly  timed,  first  open  the  relief 
cocks  on  top  or  side  of  cylinder,  then  turn  flywheel  to  the  left  until  the  line  marks  "1-4"  is 
opposite  the  center  line  of  the  cylinder.    At  this  point  the  exhaust  valve  in  either  No.  1  or 
No.  4  cylinders  should  just  commence  to  close. 

104.  If  you  find  that  the  exhaust  valve  in  No.  4  cylinder  is  beginning  to  close,  and  you 
wish  to  check  up  the  valve  timing  of  No.  1  cylinder,  turn  the  flywheel  around  to  the  left  one 
complete  revolution,  until  line  "1-4"  is  again  brought  opposite  the  center  line  of  the  cylinder; 
then  continue  slowly  turning  the  flywheel  about  one  inch  farther  to  the  left  until  the  line 
marked  "7"  coincides  with  the  center  line  of  cylinders.    This  is  the  point  at  which  the  exhaust 
valve  in  No.  1  cylinder  should  just  seat  itself  or  close. 

106.  To  determine  whether  or  not  the  valve  is  seated,  see  if  tappet  can  be  turned  with 
the  fingers.  If  the  tappet  turns  freely  the  valve  is  seated,  but  if  it  is  hard  to  turn  this  will 
show  that  the  valve  is  still  being  held  slightly  open.  If  this  is  the  case,  loosen  the  lock  nut 
on  the  tappet  screw  and  turn  the  screw  down  until  the  valve  just  seats;  then  turn  the  lock  nut 
down  tight  against  the  tappet. 

106.  To  check  up  the  timing  of  the  inlet  valve  in  the  same  cylinder,  turn  the  flywheel 
to  the  right  until  the  line  "1-4"  is  in  line  with  the  center  of  the  cylinders,  and  then  turn  the 
flywheel  about  ^"  to  the  left,  until  the  line  marked  "5"  coincides  with  the  center  line  of  the 
cylinders.    At  this  point  the  inlet  valve  should  just  begin  to  open. 

107.  Turn  the  flywheel  half  a  turn  to  the  left,  stopping  when  the  line  marked  "4.  O," 
just  to  the  right  of  2-3  comes  in  line  with  center  of  the  cylinders.    At  this  point  the  inlet  vrlve 
should  just  close.     To  see  if  the  exhaust  valve  opens  at  the  proper  time,  revolve  the  flywheel 


THE    GAS    ENGINE 


95 


three-fourths  of  a  turn  to  the  left,  and  stop  when  the  second  line,  "40",  which  is  the  first  line 
to  the  left  of  the  "2-3"  center  line,  comes  up  in  line  with  the  center  of  the  cylinders.  This  is 
the  point  where  the  exhaust  valve  in  No.  1  cylinder  should  just  begin  to  open.  The  above 
completes  the  timing  of  cylinder  No.  1. 

108.  To  time  cylinder  No.  2,  turn  flywheel  until  line  marked  "2-3"  is  in  line  with  center 
of  the  cylinders.    If  the  exhaust  valve  in  the  No.  2  cylinder  is  closed,  turn  the  flywheel  through 
one  complete  revolution  until  the  line  "2-3"  is  up. again;  the  exhaust  valve  in  No.  2  cylinder 
should  then  be  just  starting  to  close.    Proceed  now  in  the  same  manner  as  when  timing  the 
No.  1  cylinder. 

109.  Cylinders  Nos.  1  and  4  are  timed  from  the  center  line  "1-4,"  and  cylinders  Nos. 
2  and  3  from  the  line  "2-3." 

110.  Averaging  Valve  Timing.     There  is  very  little  difference  between  the  average 
timing  of  the  four-  and  the  six-cylinder  engines.    On  the  six  the  average  inlet  opening  is  10.7 
degrees  past  top  dead  center,  and  closing  point  35.6  degrees  past  bottom  center.    On  the  four, 
the  average  for  inlet  opening  is  11.1  degrees  after  top  center,  and  closing  point  36.8  degrees 
after  bottom  center.    The  small  difference  would  hardly  be  noticeable.    The  exhaust  on  the 
average  six  opens  46  degrees  before  bottom  center,  and  the  four  46.3.    The  closing  point  of 
sixes  averages  7  degrees  after  top,  and  the  four  7.7.    Therefore  there  is  very  little  difference 
between  the  four  and  six  in  this  respect. 

111.  Timing  Valves  on  Six- Cylinder  Engines.    Example:  Inlet  valve  opens  15  de- 
grees after  top  center  and  exhaust  closes  10  degrees  after  top  center.    When  the  line  marked 
"1-6"  is  in  line  with  center  mark  on  engine,  pistons  Nos.  1  and  6  are  at  their  highest  point  or 
top  dead  center.    After  turning  flywheel  to  this  mark,  turn  flywheel  to  the  left  until  the  small 
dot  mark  is  opposite  mark  on  engine.    This  is  the  point  10  degrees  to  set  exhaust  valve  just 
closing. 

112.  Fig.  4  shows  the  flywheel  markings  for  a  six-cylinder  engine.     The  cranks  in  a 
six-cylinder  engine  are  set  in  pairs,  each  pair  being  120  degrees  from  the  others.     That  is, 
pistons  1  and  6  are  in  line,  so  also  are  2  and  5  and  3  and  4.    The  timing  for  the  cylinders  will 
then  begin  from  the  marks  on  flywheel  120  degrees  apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.    The  principle  of 
timing  the  six  is  similar  to  that  of  the  four. 


tO°[XHMST- 
mVECLOSCS — 

PISTON  TOP- 


Fig.  4 


113.  Firing  Order.  The  cylinders  of  a  gasoline  engine  are  generally  numbered  from 
the  front,  the  one  next  to  the  radiator  being  No.  1.  Now  it  would  not  be  practical  to  fire  the 
cylinders  in  succession  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  on* account  of  the  rocking  motion  which  would  result. 


96  INFORMATION 

For  this  reason  the  crank  shaft  of  a  four-cylinder  engine  is  made  so  that  the  pistons  1  and  4 
are  180  degrees  from  pistons  2  and  3,  and  cranks  1  and  4  will  be  on  top  dead  center  when  cranks 
2  and  3  are  on  lower  dead  center.  The  firing  order  of  a  four  may  then  be  1,  2,  4,  3,  or  1,  3,  4,  2. 

114.  There  are  two  kinds  of  six-cylinder  crank  shafts — left-hand  and  right,  the  differ- 
ence being  distinguished  as  follows:    If,  when  looking  at  the  engine  from  the  front,  cranks  1 
and  6  are  on  top  center  and  cranks  3  and  4  are  to  the  right  of  1  and  6,  the  crank  shaft  is  then 
a  right-handed  one,  whereas  if  they  are  to  the  left  and  2  and  5  are  to  the  right,  the  crank  shaft 
is  a  left-handed  one.    The  firing  order  of  a  six-cylinder  engine  is  usually  1,  5,  3,  6,  2,  4  for  a 
right-handed  crank,  and  1,  4,  2,  6,  3,  5  for  a  left-handed  one. 

115.  The  timing  of  six-cylinder  valves  is  identical  with  that  of  the  four.    It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  time  with  the  exhaust  valve  closing  on  the  first  cylinder  on  the  "L"  head  type,  with 
exhaust  valve  closing  on  exhaust  side  and  inlet  opening  on  inlet  side. 

116.  Eight-  and  twelve-cylinder  engines  are  usually  built  with  the  cylinders  cast  in  a 
block  in  "V"  shape,  and  are  called  "V"  block  engines.    The  eight  is  similar  to  two  four-cylinder 
engines  working  on  a  regular  four-cylinder  crank  shaft  at  an  angle  of  90  degrees.    The  twelve 
is  similar  to  two  sixes  working  on  a  regular  six-crank  shaft,  the  two  sets  of  cylinders  being  set 
at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  each  other.    The  cylinders  are  numbered  from  the  front,  the 
two  next  to  the  radiator  being  IL  (No.  1  left),  and  IR  (No.  1  right). 

117.  The  firing  order  of  eights  is  usually  IL,  2R,  3L,  IR,  4L,  3R,  2L,  4R;  and  of  twelve, 
IR,  6L,  4R,  3L,  2R,  5L,  6R,  IL,  3R,  4L,  5R,  2L.    Considering  each  side  of  a  twelve-cylinder 
engine  as  a  separate  six-cylinder  engine,  the  firing  order  would  be  1,  4,  2,  6,  3,  5. 

IGNITION,  IGNITION  TIMING 

118.  Time  of  Firing.    In  the  regular  operation  of  a  gasoline  engine,  combustion  should 
take  place  as  a  piston  is  on  top  of  the  compression  stroke,  and  the  charge  must,  therefore,  be 
ignited  an  instant  before  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke  in  order  that  the  charge  may  have 
time  to  take  fire.    In  case  of  magneto  ignition,  the  magneto  armature  is  so  set,  relative  to  the 
engine  crank  shaft,  that  the  maximum  voltage  occurs  at  that  instant. 

119.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  be  able  to  shift  the  point  in  the  cycle  at  which  the  spark 
occurs  for  different  engine  speeds.    When  the  engine  is  cranked  by  hand  the  spark  must  occur 
after  the  end  of  compression  stroke,  otherwise  the  engine  may  kick  back. 

120.  If  started  by  some  form  of  self-starter,  it  is  possible  to  start  with  slightly  more 
advance  than  when  starting  by  hand,  because  the  self-starter  turns  the  engine  faster. 

121.  The  spark  should  always  be  fully  retarded  when  starting. 

122.  Advance  and  Retard  Spark.    The  meaning  of  advance  of  spark  is  to  cause  the 
spark  to  occur  earlier,  before  piston  is  on  top  of  compression  stroke. 

The  meaning  of  retard  of  spark  is  to  cause  the  spark  to  occur  later  in  the  compression 
stroke. 

123.  The  exact  position  to  advance  or  retard  is  determined  by  running  as  far  advanced 
as  possible  at  all  times  until  a  knock  is  detected,  and  then  retard  until  the  knock  disappears. 
The  driver  will  soon  learn  the  exact  position  where  the  engine  gives  the  greatest  power. 

124.  Control  of  Spark.    As  the  spark  occurs  only  when  the  primary  circuit  is  broken 
by  the  opening  of  the  circuit  breaker  contacts,  the  timing  of  the  spark  can,  therefore,  be  con- 
trolled by  having  these  contacts  open  sooner  or  later.     This  is  accomplished  by  moving  the 
breaker  by  means  of  the  timing  lever  which  is  attached  to  it.    This  movement  gives  a  timing 
range  of  about  30  degrees. 

125.  The  spark  is  fully  retarded  when  the  timing  lever  is  pushed  as  far  as  possible  in 
the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  cam,  and  is  fully  advanced  when  pushed  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion as  far  as  it  will  go. 

This  is  the  hand  method  of  spark  control;  the  timing  lever  is  connected  to  a  conf- 
lever  on  the  steering  column  which  is  operated  by  the  driver. 

126.  Automatic  Control  is  used  on  some  ignition  systems  for  automatic! 

the  spark  as  the  speed  increases.    Centrifugal  force  is  employed,  this  being  accomplished  by 


THE    GAS    ENGINE 


97 


weight  mounted  on  the  distributor  shaft,  which  swings  out  as  the  speed  increases  and  turns 
the  cam  on  the  shaft  which  supports  it. 

127.  These  weights  are  connected  by  a  system  of  levers  to  the  cam  in  such  a  way  that 
as  they  swing  out  the  cam  is  moved  on  the  shaft  in.  the  direction  hi  which  it  is  rotating,  thus 
causing  the  spark  to  occur  earlier  in  the  stroke  as  the  speed  increases. 

128.  Relation  Between  Time  of  Spark  and  Time  of  Combustion.    The  combus- 
tion should  take  place  as  the  piston  is  on  top  of  the  compression  stroke  (Fig.  5),  because  at 
that  point  the  gas  drawn  into  the  cylinder  has  been  forced  up  into  the  head  of  the  cylinder, 
and  is  at  the  point  of  greatest  compression,  hence  more  force  is  exerted  on  the  piston  if  the 
explosion  occurs  at  this  point. 


0KNOrf*0tfD  SO  TIGHT 
fffCSSU/tC  WPtfTON 

a 

n  Noresma 


'T'.  "."  .'V  ••'-.' 

/WTOV  ON  TOP 
Or  COMftifSSON 

/^ 

^^ 

I 

ffl»«( 

,Wu 

$W 
»5*Cj 

@ 

•2SM 

_>: 

JD 

nSTOH/fTfflTOf 
OfCOMPftSSW 
STROKf 

Fig-6      (a)  (b)  (c) 


Fig.  8    (a)  (b)  (c)  (d) 


129.  If  combustion  occurs  before  or  after  the  piston  has  reached  the  top  of  compression 
stroke  (Fig.  5),  loss  of  power  will  be  the  result. 

130.  If  combustion  occurs  before  or  after  the  piston  has  reached  the  top  of  compression 
stroke,  the  compression  is  not  as  great  as  if  it  occurred  at  top  of  stroke.     If  the  explosion 
occurs  before  the  top  of  stroke,  the  force  will  act  against  the  pistons'  travel  and  cause  knocking 
and  loss  of  power. 


98  INFORMATION 

131.  For  example :   Fig.  5A  piston  is  going  up  on  compression  stroke,  compressing  the 
gas  which  was  drawn  in  at  the  previous  suction  stroke.    At  the  point  where  the  piston  is  shown 
in  Fig.  5A  the  gas  is  but  slightly  compressed. 

132.  Fig.  5B.     The  piston  has  now  reached  the  top  of  compression  stroke  and  the  gas 
is  well  compressed  into  head  of  cylinder.    It  is  easily  seen  that  if  the  combustion  took  place 
at  this  time  the  force  against  the  piston  would  be  greater  than  if  it  took  place  earlier  in  the 
stroke,  as  in  Fig.  5A,  or  later,  as  in  Fig.  5C. 

133.  Time  for  Spark  to  Occur.    There  is  a  difference  in  time  between  the  time  the 
spark  is  made  at  the  spark  plug  and  the  time  the  combustion  of  the  gas  actually  takes  place, 
this  space  of  time  being  required  for  the  gas  to  ignite  and  expand.    Therefore,  since  we  desire 
that  full  expansion  occur  at  the  highest  point  of  compression,  we  must  figure  out  just  how  far 
in  advance  of  the  top  of  the  compression  stroke  the  spark  must  be  set  to  occur  in  order  to 
accomplish  this. 

134.  Relation  of  Speed  to  Time  of  Spark.    When  the  engine  is  running  slow,  the 
spark  must  be  set  (retarded)  to  occur  later  or  nearer  the  top  of  compression  stroke,  than  if 
the  engine  were  running  fast. 

135.  Suppose  engine  were  running  at  500  revolutions  per  minute.    Taking  (x)  Fig.  6C  as 
top  of  compression  stroke,  the  distance  to  set  the  spark  would  be  at,  say  (y)  Fig.  6C  in  order 
to  give  the  combustion  time  to  take  place  when  the  piston  'is  on  top  of  compression  stroke. 

136.  Now  if  the  spark  was  set  to  occur  at  (Y)  Fig.  6C  and  the  speed  was  increased  to 
1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  then  the  piston  would  go  to  the  top  of  compression  stroke  at 
(X)  Fig.  6D  and  pass  over  and  down  to  (Y)  on  the  other  side,  or  down  part  way  on  the  power 
stroke,  before  the  process  of  expansion  was  completed.    The  result  would  be  a  loss  of  power 
during  the  piston  down  travel  between  the  points  (X)  and  (Y),  Fig.  6D,  the  full  force  of  the 
expansion  not  being  exerted  on  the  piston  until  the  latter  point  (Y)  was  reached. 

137.  It  will  then  be  necessary  to  set  the  spark  or  advance  it  to  a  point,  say  (Z),  Fig.  6B, 
which  will  allow  of  complete  expansion  by  the  time  piston  reached  top  of  stroke  (X). 

138.  Speed  Relation  Between  Crank  Shaft  and  Cam  Shaft,  also  of  Armature 
of  Magneto  and  Distributor.    On  four-cylinder  four-cycle  engines  the  cam  shaft  turns  >£ 
revolution  while  crank  shaft  turns  1  revolution. 

139.  Two  revolutions  of  crank  shaft  are  necessary  to  complete  the  four  strokes,  and 
four  sparks,  one  in  each  cy Under,  are  necessary  during  these  two  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft. 

140.  Therefore  if  the  magneto  or  generator  armature  revolves  but  two  revolutions,  the 
same  as  the  crank  shaft,  then  it  must  make  two  sparks  to  each  revolution,  or  one  spark  to 
each  half  revolution,  or  four  sparks  to  two  revolutions. 

141.  In  order  for  the  distributor  to  furnish  two  sparks  during  this  half  revolution  of 
the  armature,  it  will  be  necessary  to  gear  it  to  run  one-half  the  speed  of  the  armature,  or  the 
same  speed  as  the  cam  shaft. 

142.  A  two-point  cam  is  used  on  a  magneto  circuit  breaker,  which  interrupts  the  pri- 
mary circuit  twice  during  a  complete  revolution. 

143.  On  a  six-cylinder  four-cycle  engine  the  cam  shaft  turns  one-half  times  crank  shaft 
speed.     Magneto  armature  turns  one  and  one-half  times  crank  shaft  speed.     Distributor  on 
magneto  turns  one-half  crank  shaft  speed. 

144.  Two  revolutions  of  crank  shaft  are  necessary  to  complete  the  four  strokes,  just 
the  same  as  in  the  four-cylinder  engine.    Six  sparks  are  necessary  for  the  two  revolutions  of 
the  crank  shaft.    The  distributor  revolves  at  one-half  crank  shaft  speed,  or  same  as  cam  shaft. 
Therefore  on  a  six  the  distributor  is  geared  3  to  1  of  the  armature,  which  will  cause  it  to  re- 
volve at  one-half  crank  shaft  speed. 

146.  In  battery  ignition  systems  the  distributor  and  breaker  cam  are  driven  at  one-half 
crank  shaft  speed,  a  six-point  cam  being  used  on  a  six-cylinder  engine  and  a  four-point  cam 
on  a  four-cylinder  engine. 


THE    GAS   ENGINE  99 

QUESTIONS 

82.  Describe  proper  valve  timing  position. 

84.  Give  method  of  setting  intake  valves. 

85.  Give  method  of  setting  exhaust  valves. 

86.  Describe  method  of  setting  valves  on  a  multi-cylinder  engine. 
91.  What  do  the  marks  on  a  flywheel  indicate? 

95.     Give  proper  method  of  marking  a  flywheel. 

97.  Give  exhaust  valve  setting. 

98.  Give  intake  valve  setting. 

102.  Give  method  of  valve  checking  or  timing. 

110.  Give  average  valve  timing. 

112.  Give  method  of  timing  valves  on  a  six-cylinder  engine. 

113.  Give  possible  firing  orders  of  four-cy Under  engines. 

117.  Give  usual  firing  order  of  an  eight-cylinder  engine. 

118.  When  should  combustion  take  place  in  the  cy Under  of  a  gas  engine? 

119.  What  results  if  combustion  takes  place  too  soon? 

120.  What  results  if  combustion  takes  place  too  late? 

121.  When  should  the  charge  be  ignited? 

122.  When  cranking  by  hand,  when  should  the  charge  be  ignited? 

123.  What  is  meant  by  advancing  and  retarding  the  spark? 

124.  Give  best  position  to  set  spark  for  running. 

125.  When  does  the  spark  occur  with  the  average  ignition  system? 

126.  Describe  the  operation  of  an  automatic  spark  control. 

127.  Describe  relation  between  time  of  spark  and  time  of  combustion. 

130.  Why  not  set  the  spark  at  a  certain  point  and  leave  it  there? 

131.  What  would  result  if  combustion  took  place  before  piston  reached  top  dead  center 

when  cranking  by  hand? 

136.  Give  relation  of  speed  between  crank  shaft  and  cam  shaft. 

137.  Give  relation  of  speed  between  cam  shaft  and  magneto  shaft  for  four-cylinder  engines. 

For  six-cylinder  engines. 

139.  Give  speed  of  a  magneto  on  four-,  six-,  and  eight-cylinder  engines. 

140.  How  many  sparks  does  a  magneto  produce  per  revolution  of  its  armature? 
145.     Give  speed  of  timer  or  distributor  in  battery  ignition  systems. 

MAGNETO  TROUBLES 

1.  Carbon  dust,  oil,  or  dirt  in  distributor. 

2.  Metal  dust  in  distributor. 

3.  Brushes  not  making  firm  contact. 

4.  Worn  or  burnt  distributor  segments. 

5.  CoUector  brush  or  collector  ring  broken. 

6.  Distributor  brush  broken. 

7.  Oil-soaked  windings. 

8.  Magnets  weak. 

9.  Magnets  reversed  on  Magneto. 

10.  Magnets  loose  on  pole  pieces. 

11.  Rubbing  Armature. 

12.  Worn  bearings. 

13.  Breaker  points  pitted. 

14.  Breaker  points  out  of  adjustment. 

15.  Defective  bearings. 

16.  Defective  condenser. 

17.  Magneto  armature  out  of  time  with  distributor. 

18.  Magneto  loose  on  bracket  on  engine. 

19.  Interrupter  cam  worn. 


100  INFORMATION 

20.  Worn  fiber  block. 

21.  Fiber  bushing  in  breaker  arm  binding. 

22.  Broken  breaker  arm  spring. 
"23.  Weak  breaker  arm  spring. 

24.  Ground  wire  grounded. 

25.  Ground  wire  broken. 

26.  Dirty  safety  spark  gap. 

27.  Safety  spark  gap  too  close  together. 

28.  Spark  advance  lever  sticks. 

29.  Magneto  shorting — switch  short-circuited. 

30.  Magneto  shorting — switch  open-circuited. 

31.  Loose  platinum  breaker  point  on  breaker  arm. 

32.  Excessive  lubrication. 

33.  Water  on  magnets. 

SPARK  PLUG  TROUBLES 

1.  Cracked  insulator. 

2.  Oil-covered  insulator. 

3.  Loose  insulator. 

4.  Porous  insulator. 

5.  Wire  loose  in  insulator. 

6.  Carbon  deposits  on  electrodes 

7.  Broken  gasket. 

8.  Gap  too  close. 

9.  Gap  too  wide. 

10.  Mica  insulation  oil-soaked. 

CARE  OP  SPARK  PLUGS 

1.  Clean  with  gasoline,  and  brush  and  scrape. 

2.  Use  new  gaskets  occasionally — easy  on  plug. 

3.  Do  not  wedge  carbon  particles  or  tools  between  insulator  and  shell. 

4.  See  that  all  electrodes  burn  white. 

5.  Do  not  drop  plug. 

6.  Do  not  screw  cold  plug  tight  in  hot  engine. 

7.  A  drop  of  oil  on  threads  prevents  sticking. 

8.  Insure  equal  plug  gaps  in  all  cylinders  of  engine. 

9.  Do  not  allow  globules  of  metal  to  short-circuit  plug  gap. 
10.  Keep  spark  plug  insulators  dry. 


IGNITION  SYSTEM  TROUBLES 
MOTOR  HARD  TO  START 

1.  Ground  wire  short-circuited? 

2.  Defective  magneto  (no  spark  at  plugs). 

3.  Broken  spark  plug  insulators. 

4.  Carbon  deposits  or  oil  between  plug  points. 

5.  Spark  plug  points  too  close  or  too  far  apart. 

6.  Wrong  wires  on  plug  terminals. 

7.  Short-circuited  high  tension  lead. 

8.  Broken  high  tension  lead. 

9.  Incorrect  ignition  timing,  spark  late  or  early. 

10.  Defective  platinum  points  in  breaker  box. 

11.  Breaker  points  not  separating. 

12.  Broken  breaker  arm  spring. 


THE    GAS    ENGINE  101 

13.  No  contact  at  collector  brush. 

'  14.  Breaker  points  burned  or  pitted. 

15.  Breaker  arm  stuck. 

16.  Fiber  bushing  swollen. 

17.  Short-circuiting  spring  grounded. 

18.  Dirt  or  water  in  magneto  casing. 

19.  Oil  on  breaker  points. 

20.  Distributor  filled  with  carbon  dust  and  oil. 

MOTOR  STOPS  WITHOUT  WARNING 

1.  Broken  ground  wire,  short-circuiting  magneto. 

2.  Water  on  high  tension  terminals. 

3.  Magneto  out  of  time  (drive  slipped). 

4.  Water  or  oil  in  safety  spark  gap. 

5.  Badly  worn  block  (fiber)  or  breaker  arm. 

MOTOR  RUNS  IRREGULARLY  OR  MISFIRES 

1.  Loose  wiring  of  terminals. 

2.  Broken  spark  plug  insulator. 

3.  Spark  plug  points  oiled  or  sooted. 

4.  Incorrect  spark  plug  gap. 

5.  Leaking  high  tension  lead. 

6.  Poor  breaker  point  adjustment. 

7.  Wire  broken  inside  of  insulation. 

8.  Loose  platinum  point  in  breaker  box. 

9.  Weak  breaker  arm  spring. 

10.  Broken  collector  ring  or  collector  brush. 

11.  Carbon  dust  or  oil  in  distributor. 

12.  Worn  fiber  block  or  interrupter  cam. 

13.  Oil-soaked  magneto  windings. 

14.  Weak  magnets  on  magneto. 

15.  Oil  on  breaker  points. 

COMPRESSION  TROUBLES 

1.  Broken  valve. 

2.  Warped  valve  head. 

3.  Broken  valve  spring. 

4.  Bent  or  stuck  valve  stem. 

5.  Dirt  or  carbon  under  valve  seat. 

6.  Leak  between  cylinder  head  and  spark  plug. 

7.  Leak  between  spark  plug  insulator  and  shell. 

8.  Leak  at  valve  chamber  cap. 

9.  Improper  valve  stem  clearance. 

10.  Defective  priming  cock. 

11.  Broken  piston  rings. 

12.  Slots  in  piston  rings  in  line. 

13.  Piston  rings  stuck  in  grooves. 

14.  Leaking  cylinder  head  gasket. 

15.  Pitted  valves. 

CARBURETOR  SYSTEM  TROUBLES 
MOTOR  WILL  NOT  START,  OR  STARTS  HARD 

1.  No  gasoline  in  tank. 

2.  No  gasoline  in  float  chamber. 

3.  Tank  shut-off  closed. 


102  INFORMATION 

4.  Clogged  filter  screen. 

5.  Fuel  supply  pipe  clogged  or  dented. 

6.  Gasoline  level  too  low. 

7.  Gasoline  level  too  high  (flooding). 

8.  Bent  or  stuck  float  lever. 

9.  Loose  or  defective  inlet  manifold. 

10.  Cylinders  flooded  with  gasoline. 

11.  Fuel-soaked  float. 

12.  Leaking  metal  float. 

13.  Water  in  spray  nozzle. 

14.  Dirt  in  float  chamber. 

15.  Gasoline  mixture. 

16.  Frozen  carburetor  (winter  time). 

MOTOR  STOPS  WITHOUT  WARNING 

1.  Gasoline  shut-off  valve  jarred  closed. 

2.  Gasoline  supply  pipe  clogged. 

3.  No  gasoline  in  tank. 

4.  Spray  nozzle  stopped  up. 

5.  Water  in  spray  nozzle. 

6.  Broken  air  line  or  leaking  tank  (pressure). 

7.  Air  vent  in  tank  filler  car  closed,  and  float  needle  valve  stuck. 

MOTOR  RUNS  IRREGULARLY  OR  MISFIRES 

Carburetor  or  float  chamber  getting  dry,  water  or  dirt  in  gasoline. 
Too  much  gasoline,  incorrect  jet  or  choke,  or  broken  cylinder   head   gasket   between 
cylinders. 

GAS   ENGINE  THEORY. 

The  eight  figures  on  page  103  are  intended  to  make  clear  the  operation  of  a 
gasoline  engine.  Figures  1,  2,  3,  and  4  represent  the  cylinder  of  a  gasoline  engine, 
and  figures  5,  6,  7,  and  8  represent  the  barrel  of  a  cannon.  At  "A"  in  Figure  1  is 
the  intake,  "B"  the  spark  plug,  and  "C"  the  exhaust.  At  "E"  in  Figure  5  is  point 
where  fuse  is  placed.  "F"  is  the  ball,  "G"  is  the  powder  (fuel),  and  "H"  is  the 
barrel  of  the  cannon.  At  "I"  in  Figure  6  is  shown  the  Tamper  used  to  compress 
the  fuel  in  the  cannon,  and  at  "J"  in  Figure  8  is  shown  the  "swab"  used  to  clean  the 
barrel  of  the  cannon. 

In  Figure  1  fuel  is  being  drawn  into  the  cylinder,  and  in  Figure  5  fuel  is  being 
placed  in  the  caoinon.  In  Figures  2  and  6  the  fuel  is  being  compressed  into  a  small 
space.  In  Figures  3  and  7  the  fuel  has  been  ignited.  In  Figure  3  the  piston  is 
forced  downward,  and  in  Figure  7  the  ball  is  forced  from  the  cannon.  In  both 
cases  the  movement  was  due  to  rapid  expansion  due  to  ignition  of  the  fuel.  In 
Figures  4  and  8  the  burned  gasses  are  being  forced  out  of  the  chamber.  In  Figure  4 
we  say  the  piston  forces  the  burned  gasses  out  through  the  exhaust,  while  in  Figure 
8  the  barrel  of  the  cannon  is  being  cleaned  out.  The  operation  of  a  gasoline  engine 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  cannon,  as  just  described. 


THE    GAS    ENGINE 


103 


FIG.  9 


FIG.  7 


SECTION  4 

DELCO  SYSTEMS 

1910  TO  1915  INCLUSIVE 
INSTRUCTION,  OPERATION,  AND  CARE 

WIRING  DIAGRAMS 

Internal  Circuits  of  Ignition  Relay,  Cut-Out  Relay,  Circuit-Breaking 

Relay,  Vibrating-Regulator  Relay,  Coils,  Voltage  Regulator,  Switches, 

Motor  Generators,  and  All  Important  Parts  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of 

DELCO  SYSTEMS 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


105 


Fig.  1. 
1910   CADILLAC 


106 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  2. 
1911   CADILLAC 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


107 


Fig.  3. 
1912  PAIGE  DETROIT 


108 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  4. 
1912   CADILLAC 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


109 


Fig.  5. 
1913   CADILLAC 


110 


INFORMATION 


Fig.   6. 
1913  COLE  4-40,  4-50  and  4-60.  1913  OAKLAND  4-42  and  6-60 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


111 


Fig.  7. 
1913  HUDSON  37  and  6-54 


112 


I  X  F  0  R  M  A  T  I  0  N 


Fig.  8. 
1913   OLDSMOBILE 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


113 


Fig.  9. 
PACKARD  13-38 


114 


Fig.  10. 
1914    BUICK    B-24,    25    and    B-36,    37 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


115 


Fig.  11. 
1914    BUICK    B-54,   55 


116 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  12. 
1914  CADILLAC 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


117 


Fig.  13. 
1914   CARTERCAR  7 


118 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  14. 
1914  COLE  4-40,  4-50  and  6-60. 


1914  MOON  4-42  and  6-50 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


119 


Fig.  15. 
1914   HUDSON   6-40 


120 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  16. 
1914  HUDSON  6-54 


DEL CO    SYSTEMS 


121 


1914   OAKLAND   36. 


Fig.  17. 
1914  PATERSON   32  and  33 


122 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  18. 
1914  OAKLAND  43,  48  and  62 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


123 


mw 


2      u     5  5     r. 

o     § 

I  i       S  C       C 


Fig.  19. 
1914  OLDSMOBILE  42 


124 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  20. 
1914  OLDSMOBILE  6 


DEL  CO    SYSTEMS 


125 


tn 

5  3 

o    <n 


£ 

«  

0} 

i 

m 

Q 

s:  —  ^ 

Fig.  21. 
1915   AUBURN    6-40.         1915   JACKSON   48. 


126 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  22. 
1915   BUICK   TRUCK 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


127 


Fig.  23. 
1915   CADILLAC  8 


128 


INFORMATION 


Figure  24 
1915   COLE  4-40 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


129 


Fig.  25. 
1915   COLE  8 


130 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  26. 
1915    HUDSON    6-54 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


131 


fc 

a 

^               1 

i 

6 

X 

tf) 

Fig.  27. 
1915   BUICK   C  24,  25.         1915  CARTERCAR  9 


132 


INFORMATION 


1 

1. 

fd 

Fig.  28. 
1915    OLDSMOBILE   6-55 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


133 


5 

V) 

A 

Q 

Fig.  29. 

1915   BUICK   C   36,  27.        1915   BUICK   C   54,   55 

1915  COLE  6-50  1915  MOON  6-60  1915  OLDSMOBILE  42 

1915  HUDSON  6-40  1915  PATERSON 

1915  MOON  6-40  1915  OAKLAND  37  and  49 


1915  WESTCOTT-U 


134 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  30. 
1915    STEVENS-DURYEA 


135 


» V 


u 


f    • 

O 


TO 

MAO 


u 

BACK 


H 


CIRCUIT 


Fig.  31. 
1910  and   1912  CADILLAC 


\ 


I/ 


®>  -  ow 

MAC. 


U 

BACK 


xC 1       "I 

©    di      Q 


IOC 


Fig.  32. 
1911   CADILLAC 


136 


INFORMATION 


/                          \ 

© 

>•"»•                                     ^™ 

© 

(T 

i)                (/J 

(g)         © 

\Ji/ 

S         OFF       M* 

1C 

1C 

0 


f    1 


FRONT 


BACK 


Fig.  33. 

1914   BUICK   B  24,   25   and   36,   37 
1914    CARTERCAR    7         1914    OAKLAND    36         1914    PATERSON 


BACK 

Fig. 34. 
1913   CADILLAC 


CIRCUIT 


SACK 


CIRCUIT 


Fig.  35. 
ALL   1913   COLE,   HUDSON,   OAKLAND   and   OLDSMOBILE 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


SACK  CIRCUIT 

Fig.    36.       1914   CADILLAC 


137 


BACK 
Fig.    37.     1914    HUDSON 


CIRCUIT 

Fig.  38.     1914  BUICK  B  54,  55 

1914  OAKLAND  43,  48  and  62  1914  OLDSMOBILE  6-54 

1914  MOON  4-12  and  6-50  1914  COLE  4-40,  4-50  and  6-60 


F-R.ONT  SACK  CIRCUIT 

Fig.   39.     1915   CADILLAC   8 


138 


INFORMATION 


T 

w 


TO 


TO 

COIL. 


TO 


Offf 


HEAO  HEAO  TAIL. 

6KK2HT  OlM 

*  CIRCOIT 


LIGHTING 


M  S 


o  o  o    o  o 


Fig.  40. 
1914    HUDSON    6-40 


(LIGHTS 


CIRCUIT 
BREAKER 


O    O    O    O      O 


Fig.  41. 
1915    JACKSON 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


139 


r*|i=0      r-Hcfl    (-»• 

Uaa^v      1 

0IM*1EK       (4)  l5l 

•WSISTAWCrS-/  V-X 


l_l  QHTS 


i_IGHTS 


o   o   o   o    o 


1915  BUICK  TRUCK 
1915  BUICK   C  24,  25 
1915  BUICK  C  36,  37 
1915  BUICK  C  54,  55 
1915  CARTERCAR 


Fig.  42. 

1915  COLE  4-40 
1915  COLE  6-50 
1915  HUDSON  6-40 
1915  MOON    6-40 
1915  OAKLAND  37  and  49 


1915  OLDSMOBILE  42 
1915  MOON  6-60 
1915  PATERSON 
1915  WESTCOTT-U 


140 


INFORMATION 


1=1  C3 


CIRCUIT 


o  o  o  o  o 


Fig.  43. 
1915   STEVENS-DURYEA 


U/GHTS 


C       5 


C       ) 


C        ) 


r    CIRCUIT 
^ 


i.f  CHTS 


M 


O    O    O    O       O 


Fig.  44. 
1915  COLE  8 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


141 


Fig.  45. 
1911,    1912    and    1913    BATTERY    SYSTEMS 


Fig.  46. 
1912   and    1913   MAGNETO    SYSTEMS 


142 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  47. 
1913   OLDSMOBILE     6-53 


Fig.  48. 

1913  COLE  4-40,  4-50  and  4-60 
1913   HUDSON   37   and   6-54  1913   OAKLAND   4-42   and   6-60 


DEL  CO    SYSTEMS 


143 


urv/T 


1914  BUICK  B-54,  55 

1914  CADILLAC 

1914  COLE,  4  and  6  Cyl. 


Fig.  49. 

1914  HUDSON  6-54 

1915  HUDSON  6-54 
1914  OAKLAND     48 

6-60 


and 


1914  MOON 

1914  OLDSMOBILE  6-54 

1915  OLDSMOBILE  6-55 


1914  BUICK  B  24,  25, 

36  and  37 

1915  BUICK  C  24,  25 


UNIT 


Fig.  50. 

1914  CARTERCAR    7 

1915  CARTERCAR   9 
1914  HUDSON  6-40 


1914  OAKLAND  36 
1914  PATERSON 


144 


INFORMATION 


1915  BUICK  C  36,  37  and 

54,  55 
1915  HUDSON  6-40 


Fig.  51. 

1915  OAKLAND  37  and  49 
1915  Auburn 
1915  COLE  6-50 
1915  MOON  6-40  and  6-60 


1915  OLDSMOBILE  42 
1915  WESTCOTT-U 
1915  CADILLAC 


Fig.  52. 
1915    COLE   4-40 


DELCO   SYSTEMS 


145 


HIGH 


Fig.  56. 

HIGH  TENSION  DISTRIBUTOR 

This  high  tension  distributor  differs  from  the  .usual  form  of  ignition  systems  in  that  it 
embodies  in  one  unit  a  timer,  means  of  advancing  and  retarding  the  spark,  and  a  high  tension 
distributor.  It  requires  but  one  induction  coil  for  any  number  of  cylinders.  The  high  ten- 
sion wires  are  connected  from  their  respective  cylinders  to  the  terminals  of  the  distributor. 
The  connection  to  the  distributor  terminals  is  made  by  peeling  the  insulation  off  of  the  high 
tension  wires  back  about  H  of  an  inch  and  inserting  the  bare  wire  through  the  hole  in  the 
terminal  and  spreading  it  on  the  under  side.  When  the  terminal  cap  is  screwed  down  the 
wire  is  securely  clamped  and  cannot  get  loose. 

INSTALLING  AND  ADJUSTING  DELCO  TIMER  CONTACTS 

All  of  the  Delco  timer  contact  points  with  the  exception  of  the  battery  points  used  in 
the  dual  distributors  are  tungsten  metal,  which  has  a  very  high  melting  point,  and  is  too 
hard  to  file.  These  will  burn  but  very  slightly  when  conditions  are  normal,  but  with  im- 
proper or  shorted  out  resistance  unit,  or  a  defective  condenser  or  improper  voltage  (such  as 
is  secured  by  running  the  car  without  a  storage  battery)  they  will  bum  and  pit  very  rapidly. 
Whenever  burned  or  pitted,  they  should  be  dressed  so  as  to  give  a  smooth,  flat  surface  across 
the  face.  This  can  be  done  by  holding  in  a  vise  and  using  fine  emery  cloth  under  a  flat  file. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  dress  these  perfectly  square.  If  they  are  burned  too  much  to  permit 
the  proper  dressing,  they  should  be  replaced  by  new  ones.  After  they  are  put  in  position 
and  adjusted,  as  shown  hi  Fig.  59,  the  ignition  resistance  unit  should  be  tested  as  follows: 
Close  the  "M"  ignition  circuit  and,  with  the  distributor  head  and  rotor  removed,  bring  the 
timer  contacts  together,  at  which  time  the  resistance  unit  should  heat  up  sufficiently  in  30 
seconds'  time  to  make  a  drop  of  oil  placed  on  it  smoke. 

If  the  resistance  unit  does  not  heat  up  properly,  it  is  either  shorted  out  or  the  circuit  is 
open  at  some  other  point,  or  the  storage  battery  is  completely  discharged.  The  resistance 
unit  should  always  be  tested  in  this  manner,  because  if  it  is  shorted  out,  the  timer  contacts 
will  burn  very  rapidly,  the  ignition  will  be  poor  at  low  speeds,  and  the  ignition  coil  and  con- 
denser are  subjected  to  abnormal  voltages,  which  are  very  apt  to  result  in  damage  to  either 
or  both  in  a  short  time. 

After  making  sure  that  the  resistance  unit  is  in  the  circuit  properly,  observe  the  action 
of  the  contact  points  while  the  starter  is  cranking  the  engine.  If  a  decided  spark-  occurs  each 
time  the  contacts  open,  a  broken-down  condenser  is  indicated,  which,  of  course,  should  be 


146 


INFORMATION 


replaced  by  a  new  one.    A  very  small  spark  may  sometimes  be  observed  even  with  a  good 
condenser. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  see  the  pig  tail  (that  is,  the  flexible  stranded  wire)  is  held  firmly 
by  the  screw  that  holds  the  contact  stop  arm.  If  the  pig  tail  is  not  properly  secured,  the 
contact  pivot  will  sooner  or  later  become  burned  and  stick,  due  to  the  ignition  current  being 
carried  through  the  pivot. 


Fig.  59. 

CONTACT  MAKER  ARMS  AND  ADJUSTMENTS 

To  adjust  the  distributor  contact  note  the  following  instructions:  When  contact  arm  is 
directly  on  top  of  lobe  of  cam  the  distance  between  points  "A,"  Fig.  59,  should  be  about  fifteen 
thousandths  of  an  inch.  When  the  lobe  of  cam  of  timer  has  broken  contact  with  the  contact 
arm,  the  distance  between  the  points  "B,"  Fig.  59,  should  be  about  ten  thousandths  of  an 
inch.  These  distributors  are  constructed  to  care  for  battery  or  magneto  ignition,  or  both,  as 
the  case  may  be. 


HOUO    DOWN 
CLIP 


H/GH   TENSION 
CONTACT 


RUBBER.  TRACK 


CO/VTACT 


NOTCH 

COCAT//VG 
TONGUE 


Fig.    60. 


147 


INSTALLING  DISTRIBUTOR  HEADS 

All  the  Delco  distributor  heads  are  now  fitted  with  a  rotor  track  of  hard  rubber  com- 
pound especially  developed  for  this  purpose.  This  overcomes  the  burning  of  the  distributor 
heads  which  occasionally  occurred  at  this  point  in  the  bakelite  heads  and  which  resulted  in 
faulty  ignition.  At  the  time  of  installing  the  new  distributor  head  the  breaker  contact  points 
should  be  checked  up  as  given  under  "Installing  and  Adjusting  Delco  Timer  Contacts." 
Also  the  condenser  should  be  checked  as  described  under  "Instructions  for  Installing  Con- 
denser." It  is  important  that  the  distributor  head  be  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  hold-down 
clips  shown  in  Fig.  60.  If  necessary,  bend  these  clips  to  hold  the  head  firmly.  Also  the  locating 
tongue  on  the  distributor  must  be  in  the  notch  in  the  distributor  head  provided  for  it.  Other- 
wise the  rotor  button  will  not  be  in  contact  with  the  high  tension  terminal  in  the  distributor 
head  at  the  time  the  spark  occurs,  which  will  cause  burning  of  the  head  and  poor  ignition. 
The  distributor  head  should  be  kept  clean.  All  dust  and  dirt  should  be  wiped  from  the  interior 
with  a  soft  cloth  and  vaseline  applied  as  described  in  connection  with  the  rotor. 

ROTORS 

The  important  features  concerning  the  rotor  are: 

(1)  That  this  rotor  button  is  polished  smooth  and  bright.    If  not  to  subject  the  rotor 
button  to  undue  pressure  on  the  distributor  head. 

(2)  That  this  rotor  button  is  polished  smooth  and  bright.     If  necessary,  burnish  this 
button  by  first  using  fine  emery  cloth,  then  a  piece  of  cloth  or  leather.    The  idea  is  to  have 
the  button  polished  bright  so  as  not  to  cut  the  distributor  head  and,  high  tension  contacts, 
the  dust  from  which  causes  a  conducting  path  in  the  distributor  head  which  causes  a  spark 
to  be  carried  to  the  improper  terminal  and  results  in  burning  of  the  distributor  heads. 

(3)  Occasional  lubrication  of  the  track  of  the  distributor  head  by  a  particle  of  vaseline 
no  larger  than  the  size  of  a  breaker  contact  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  wearing  by  the  rotor 
button,  but  grease  or  oil  containing  graphite  must  not  be  used  for  this  purpose,  as  graphite 
is  an  electrical  conductor. 


NO    L£?AD     IS,   USED     HETRE 

WHEN   THE.  BREAKER 
CONTACT  IS  GROUNDED 


IGNITION    COIL 


MOUNTING 
SCREWS 


DISTRIBUTOR 

HEAD 


GROUNO 

Fig.   61. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  INSTALLING  CONDENSERS 

A  condenser  consists  of  two  strips  of  tinfoil  separated  from  each  other  by  paraffined  or 
oiled  paper  with  the  necessary  mounting  and  connections.  When  broken  down  a  condenser 
causes  poor  ignition,  usually  irregular  missing,  and  sometimes  complete  failure.  If  broken 


148  INFORMATION 

down  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  irregular  missing,  the  distributor  contact  breaker  points 
will  burn  and  slacken.  This  can  be  seen  by  removing  the  distributor  head  and  rotor  and 
observing  the  operation  of  the  breaker  contact  when  the  starter  is  cranking  the  engine.  If 
the  condenser  is  at  fault,  there  will  be  a  decided  spark  each  time  the  contacts  open.  (A  slight 
spark  will  sometimes  be  noted  even  with  a  good  condenser.)  Whenever  a  condenser  is  in- 
stalled the  contact  points  should  be  carefully  inspected,  and  if  blackened  or  burned,  they 
should  be  removed  and  dressed  as  described  under  the  heading,  "Installing  and  Adjusting 
Delco  Timer  Contacts." 

Figure  61  shows  a  Delco  Condenser  and  at  the  right  is  a  circuit  diagram  of  the  ignition 
circuit,  with  the  exception  of  the  switch.  A  condenser  is  always  connected  across  the  timer 
contacts.  In  some  systems  the  resistance  unit  is  in  the  circuit  between  the  ignition  coil  and 
the  timer  contacts,  but  this  in  no  way  changes  the  working  of  the  system.  Current  does  not 
flow  through  the  condenser,  but  instead  current  flows  into  the  condenser  and  back  out  in  a 
reverse  direction  at  the  time  the  contacts  open.  It  is  this  charging  of  the  condenser  that 
prevents  the  burning  at  the  contact  points  and  the  discharging  from  the  condenser  that  pro- 
duces the  high  voltage  from  the  ignition  coil.  Therefore,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  condenser 
affects  the  contact  points  and  the  size  and  nature  of  the  spark  obtained  from  the  ignition  coil. 
All  the  late  type  condensers  have  a  dull  nickel  finish. 

IGNITION  COIL 

Ignition  coil  troubles  may  be  separated  into  two  classes.    These  are  primary  and  secondary. 

Primary  troubles  tnay  be  either  open  or  grounded,  either  of  which  can  be  determined 
when  the  resistance  is  tested,  as  described  under  the  heading,  "Installing  and  Adjusting 
Timer  Contacts."  If  the  primary  winding  is  grounded,  the  resistance  unit  will  not  heat  up 
properly,  though  it  may  heat  up  partially,  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground.  The 
most  common  method  of  grounding  is  by  the  coil  being  turned  until  one  of  the  terminals  comes 
in  contact  with  the  mounting  bracket.  If  the  primary  winding  is  open,  no  current  will  flow 
through  the  resistance  unit  and  it  will  not  heat  at  all,  but  a  loose  connection  may  sometimes 
test  as  apparently  good  and  only  open  when  the  car  is  vibrating.  About  the  only  satisfactory 
test  for  locating  this  is  to  have  an  ammeter  in  the  circuit  and  observe  the  reading  while  the 
car  is  running. 

Secondary  troubles  always  result  in  a  weak  spark.  This  can  be  located  by  removing  the 
high  tension  lead  from  the  coil  and  observing  the  spark.  With  a  defective  secondary  a  weak 
spark  will  result.  With  a  good  coil  the  engine  should  fire  regularly  while  the  spark  is  jumping 
at  least  one  fourth  of  an  inch. 

ADVANCE  LEVERS 

The  connection  to  the  advance  lever  on  all  distributors  and  generators  should  be  so 
made  that  when  the  spark  lever  on  the  steering  wheel  is  fully  advanced  the  advance  lever 
on  the  generator  or  distributor  should  not  be  advanced  to  its  full  movement. 

If  this  lever  is  advanced  to  its  full  movement  and  is  held  in  this  position,  it  throws  an 
undue  strain  on  the  advance  mechanism,  which  causes  unnecessary  wearing  on  the  distributor 
gears. 

If  the  proper  advance  cannot  be  secured  without  advancing  this  lever  to  its  full  move- 
ment, the  engine  should  be  retimed,  as  there  is  ample  advance  provided  in  Delco  distributors. 

SPARK  PLUGS 

The  best  results  from  Delco  ignition  are  obtained  when  the  spark  plug  setting  is  thirty 
thousandths  of  an  inch.  This  is  approximately  the  thickness  of  the  gauge  on  the  distributor 
wrenches,  though  the  ignition  will  work  very  satisfactorily  with  considerable  variation  from 
this  setting. 

No  advantage  is  obtained  by  having  more  than  one  gap  in  a  spark  plug. 

Electric  adhesive  tape  should  never  be  used  around  high  tension  wiring,  as  this  contains 
sufficient  conductive  material  to  carry  ignition  current  and  often  causes  serious  ignition 
trouble. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


149 


TIMING  OF  IGNITION 

In  general,  the  timing  of  Delco  ignition  is  the  same  as  a  magneto.  That  is,  the  spark 
occurs  when  the  contacts  open,  and  this  should  occur  at  or  near  dead  center  on  the  firing 
stroke  when  the  advance  lever  on  the  steering  column  is  fully  retarded.  This  method  may 
be  employed  to  time  any  Delco  system  when  more  complete  timing  instructions  cannot  be 
had,  but  it  is  always  better  to  get  the  timing  instructions  from  the  general  instruction  book, 
as  different  engines  require  different  timing,  but  the  general  timing  can  be  outlined  as  follows: 

1.  Fully  retard  spark  lever  on  the  steering  wheel  sector. 

2.  Turn  the  engine  to  dead  center  with  No.  1  cylinder  on  the  firing  stroke  (practically 
one  half  a  revolution  after  the  intake  valve  closes). 

3.  Loosen  the  screw  A,  Fig.  52,  in  the  center  of  timing  mechanism  and  locate  the  proper 
lobe  of  the  cam  by  turning  with  the  rotor  on  the  cam  until  the  button  on  the  rotor  comes 
directly  under  the  position  the  No.  1  high  tension  terminal  in  the  distributor  head  will  occupy 
when  the  distributor  head  is  properly  located. 

4.  Set  the  cam  B,  Fig.  52,  so  that  when  the  back  lash  in  the  distributor  gears  is  taken 
up  clockwise  the  timing  contacts  will  be  open,  and  when  the  rotor  is  rocked  backward  to  take 
up  the  back  lash  the  contacts  will  just  close. 

(Caution:  The  dual  distributors  always  time  by  the  magneto  contacts.  These  are  the 
larger  contacts.) 


HIGH   TENSION   TERMINALS 


I_OW   TENSION 
TERMINALS 


F/«.-  A 


COIL.      SOX 


HIGH 

TENSION 

TERMINAL 


LOW    TENS/ON   TERMINALS 


)2.    U      U3 

CIRCUIT 
F/C.-S 


COIL  BOXES  AND  IGNITION  COILS 

1910  Coil  box.  This  unit  contains  four  ignition  coils  (without  vibrators),  one  for  each 
motor  cylinder.  Fig.  A  shows  the  box  with  high  and  low  tension  terminals.  The  top  of  the 
terminal  is  designed  to  receive  the  "Connecticut,"  "Rajah,"  or  regular  type  of  terminal. 
The  five  terminals  at  the  bottom  are  for  the  primary  connections.  The  middle  one  is  the 
common  and  connects  with  the  zinc  of  the  battery.  The  other  four  connect  with  the  timer 
contacts.  The  interna!  circuits  are  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


150 


INFORMATION 


Ignition  Coil.  Fig.  C  shows  the  type  of  coil  used  on  all  Delco  systems  later  than  1910. 
The  internal  circuit  (Fig.  D)  shows  one  end  of  the  secondary  connected  to  the  primary.  This 
is  used  on  all  battery  systems,  and  1915  Cadillac.  In  all  magneto  systems  and  all  dual  systems 
except  1915  Cadillac  the  secondary  is  not  connected  to  the  primary  in  the  coil,  but  is  con- 
nected to  the  frame  of  the  coil,  therefore  it  is  necessary  in  this  case  to  run  a  wire  from  frame 
of  coil  to  frame  of  car  (ground).  Note. — If  this  wire  is  omitted,  the  ignition  will  be  defective. 
In  case  of  doubt,  ground  the  frame  of  the  ignition  coil,  as  no  harm  will  be  done  should  this  be 
unnecessary. 

IGNITION  RELAY 

This  piece  of  apparatus  is  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  primary  circuit  and  thereby 
producing  a  spark  from  the  secondary  windings  of  the  induction  coil.  It  takes  the  place  of 
the  four  vibrators  on  an  ordinary  coil  unit  or  simple  coil  system  timer.  In  this  way  it  replaces 
what  is  commonly  known  as  a  master  vibrator.  It  differs  from  the  ordinary  vibrator,  how- 
ever, in  that  it  uses  but  one  spark  for  each  contact  of  the  commutator. 

C  is  the  magnet  coil,  composed  of  two  windings:  one  heavy  winding  through  which  the 
primary  circuit  passes  when  the  timer  makes  contact,  thus  drawing  down  the  armature  A, 
which  swings  on  a  rust-proof  pivot  at  X  and  opens  contact  P.  This  contact  opens  the  circuit 
and  the  armature  would  again  return  to  its  first  position,  making  contact  and  breaking  it 
again  as  an  ordinary  Vibrator  if  it  were  not  for  a  second  fine  winding,  wound  on  the  same 
coil,  but  shunted  around  P.  The  current  flowing  through  this  holds  the  armature  A  against 
pole  piece  PP  until  the  timer  slips  off  contact,  when  this  auxiliary  circuit  is  opened,  thus 
releasing  the  armature  and  allowing  the  platinum  iridium  contact  P  to  come  together  and 
be  ready  to  break  the  circuit  when  the  timer  makes  the  next  contact. 


PP 


Ln  awvuaa  ygfff,  ] 


ill 


B 


Fig.  62. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS  151 

When  the  vibrator  button  on  the  switch  is  pushed  on,  it  opens  this  auxiliary  or  holding 
coil  and  permits  the  armature  to  vibrate  the  same  as  any  vibrator,  sending  a  shower  of  sparks 
to  the  cylinder  for  starting. 

S  is  a  hard  rubber  spacing  support  which  holds  the  lower  contact  spring  in  a  definite 
position.  H  is  a  hard  rubber  insulating  stud  which,  when  the  armature  A  is  pulled  down  to 
pole  piece  PP,  pushes  the  spring  S2  and  S3  away  from  the  spring  SI,  thus  opening  the  con- 
tact P. 

PP  is  a  pole  piece  which  screws  in  or  out  as  desired  by  means  of  a  ratchet  R.  This  is 
the  only  adjustment  on  the  entire  system  and  is  only  used  to  get  the  proper  opening  of  the 
contacts  P. 

As  this  relay  is  unusual  in  construction,  it  is  but  natural  that  people  should  attribute 
almost  every  little  trouble  to  it.  Loose  connections,  grounded  wires,  and  weak  batteries  make 
the  relay  work  improperly,  but  through  no  fault  of  the  relay  itself. 

The  only  point  in  the  care  of  the  relay  which  it  should  be  necessary  to  watch  is  the  pole 
piece  adjustment.  This  should  be  set  so  that  the  opening  between  the  contacts  when  the 
armature  (A)  is  shoved  down  against  the  pole  piece  PP  will  be  about  the  thickness  of  one 
sheet  of  the  paper  upon  which  this  is  printed.  A  simple  way  of  determining  this  is  to  screw 
the  pole  piece  outward — that  is,  in  the  direction  opposite  to  the  hands  of  a  watch,  until  the 
motor  stops  firing.  Then  go  the  other  way  four  or  five  notches. 

Sometimes  particles  of  dirt  get  between  the  armature  and  the  pole  piece  at  the  point  M. 
This  will  sometimes  cause  the  armature  to  stick  down  when  running  the  engine  on  the  battery 
side,  while  it  will  still  work  with  the  button  pushed  in.  This  can  be  cleaned  out  by  slipping 
a  piece  of  paper  between  the  pole  piece  and  armature,  pushing  down  lightly  on  the  armature 
and  pulling  out  the  paper. 

If  the  parts  become  bent,  or  if  there  is  a  reason  to  believe  that  the  springs  have  become 
bent  or  are  not  of  the  proper  tension,  test  as  follows: 

The  spring  SI  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  rubber  button  "S"  is  held  firmly  against 
the  upright,  and  the  spring  S2  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  two  platinum  points  at  "P"  are 
very  lightly  in  contact  when  the  spring  S3  is  held  away  from  it;  and  the  spring  S3  should  be 
so  adjusted  that  it  will  press  just  hard  enough  against  spring  S2  so  that  when  the  primary 
timer  is  in  contact  and  the  switch  lever  is  on  the  battery  side  of  the  switch  and  the  push 
button  is  out,  the  vibrator  will  continue  to  vibrate  when  four  common  1^-volt  dry  cells  are 
connected,  and  should  not  vibrate  when  five  common  l>^-volt  dry  cells  are  connected. 

The  condenser  is  cylindrical  in  form,  located  beside  the  relay  coil,  and  needs  no  attention. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  CARE  OF  THE  IGNITION  RELAY 

1.  If  for  any  reason  a  relay  should  need  adjustment,  follow  carefully  instructions  given 
above.    This  adjustment  is  only  to  compensate  for  the  wearing  of  the  contacts  and  under  no 
conditions  should  you  screw  the  pole  piece  very  far  in  or  out.    Screw  it  carefully  one  notch 
at  a  time,  and  remember  the  number  of  notches  turned,  so  you  can  return  it  to  the  original 
position  if  desired. 

2.  If  it  should  vibrate  rapidly  on  contact  when  the  switch  lever  is  on  "Battery,"  the 
holding  coil  circuit  is  open  somewhere.    Test  out  the  circuit.    In  emergency  connect  the  two 
terminals  on  the  relay  marked  B  and  S  with  a  wire.    This  will  stop  the  vibration  if  the  trouble 
is  outside  the  relay. 

3.  If  it  should  vibrate  freely  under  the  same  conditions,  it  indicates  weak  batteries  or 
dirty  timer. 

4.  If  a  cylinder  should  miss,  do  not  look  for  trouble  in  the  relay,  because  it  acts  in  the 
same  capacity  for  all  cylinders;  if  it  hits  on  one,  it  will  hit  on  all. 


152 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


RESISTANCE  UNITS 

Figs.  63  and  64  show  the  two  types  of  resistance  units  used. 

This  unit  is  in  series  with  the  magneto  type  ignition  circuit,  and,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, the  coil  of  special  wire  remains  cool  and  offers  little  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the 
current. 

However,  if  for  any  reason  the  primary  circuit  of  the  magneto  type  ignition  should  remain 
closed  for  any  length,  of  time,  the  passage  of  current  through  the  coil  would  heat  it,  thus  in- 
creasing its  resistance  to  a  point  where  very  little  current  could  pass,  insuring  against  waste 
of  current  and  damage  to  the  ignition  coil  and  timer  contacts. 


0 

0 

Fig.  65. 

CUT-OUT  RELAY 

The  cut-out  relay  is  an  electro-magnet  with  a  compound  winding.  The  voltage  coil  or 
fine  wire  winding  is  connected  directly  across  the  terminals  of  the  generator.  The  current 
coil,  or  coarse  wire  winding,  is  in  series  with  the  circuit  between  the  generator  and  the  storage 
battery,  and  the  circuit  is  opened  and  closed  at  the  contacts  "A." 

When  the  engine  is  started  the  generator  voltage  builds  up  and  when  it  reaches  about 
six  and  one  half  or  seven  volts  current  passing  through  the  voltage  winding  produces  enough 
magnetism  to  overcome  the  tension  of  the  spring  "B,"  attracting  the  magnet  armature  "C" 
to  core  "D,"  which  closes  the  contacts  "A."  These  contacts  close  the  circuit  between  the 
generator  and  storage  battery.  The  current  flowing  through  the  coarse  wire  winding  increases 
the  pull  of  armature  and  gives  a  good  contact  of  low  resistance  at  the  contact  points. 

When  the  generator  slows  down  And  its  voltage  drops  below  that  of  the  storage  battery, 
the  battery  sends  a  reverse  current  through  the  coarse  wire  windings,  which  kills  the  pull  on 
the  magnet  armature  "C."  The  spring  "B"  then  opens  the  circuit  between  the  generator 
and  battery,  and  will  hold  it  open  until  the  generator  is  again  started  up. 

Note. — Some  relays  have  only  two  terminals.  Where  the  No.  3  terminal  is  omitted  the 
fine  winding  is  connected  to  the  frame  of  the  relay  instead. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


153 


SHUNT 

FIEL-D 

J-ETADS 


00 

/    2    B  4- 


GENERATOR 


AMPERE-HOUR  METER 

The  ampere-hour  meter  measures  the  current  flowing  into  and  out  of  the  battery,  but 
does  not  indicate  the  state  of  charge  in  the  battery.  The  large  hand  on  this  meter  runs  clock- 
wise when  current  is  being  taken  from  the  battery  and  the  opposite  way  when  current  is 
going  into  the  battery.  The  little  hand  on  this  meter  serves  as  an  indicator,  which  enables 
one  at  a  glance  to  determine  whether  the  battery  is  idle,  charging,  or  discharging.  The  meter 
contacts  are  on  the  side  of  the  meter  and  serve  as  a  means  of  opening  the  shunt  field  of  the 
generator.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  large  hand  when  it  gets  around  to  zero  while  the 


154 


INFORMATION 


battery  is  being  charged.  The  only  care  of  this  meter  is  to  lift  the  large  hand  and  reset  it 
back  to  "70"  once  every  two  weeks  while  filling  each  cell  of  the  storage  battery  with  distilled 
water. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  ampere-hour  meter  contacts,  and  motor  generator  terminals.  The 
current  from  the  armature  for  the  shunt  field  flows  through  line  "B"  into  contact  spring 
"C,"  through  contacts  "D"  down  through  contacts  "G,"  through  contact  spring  "H,"  through 
the  line  "I,"  and  back  through  the  armature. 

As  the  large  ampere-hour  meter  hand  rotates  past  "O,"  Fig.  66,  it  begins  opening  con- 
tacts "D"  by  pressing  against  contact  spring  "K." 

When  the  contacts  "D"  are  opened,  the  field  current  flows  from  line  "B"  through  the 
resistance  coil  "L"  to  connection  "E,"  instead  of  flowing  through  contacts  "D."  This  cuts 
more  resistance  into  the  shunt  field  circuit  of  the  generator,  thus  reducing  the  charge,  rate  of 
the  storage  battery. 

If  the  gasoline  motor  continues  to  run,  the  meter  hand  will  continue  pressing  contact 
spring  "K,"  which  will  engage  with  contact  spring  "F,"  opening  contacts  "G"  and  cutting 
off  the  charging  current  of  the  battery. 

If  the  lights  are  turned  on,  or  the  engine  cranked,  the  large  meter  hand  will  travel  in  the 
clockwise  direction,  gradually  releasing  contact  spring  "K"  and  closing  contacts  "G,"  which 
will  cause  the  battery  to  be  charged  at  a  slow  rate.  If  more  current  is  consumed  than  is  being 
delivered  by  the  generator,  the  battery  continues  traveling  in  the  clockwise  direction,  releas- 
ing all  pressure  on  contact  spring  "K,"  which  closes  contacts  "D,"  causing  the  battery  to 
charge  at  its  full  rate. 

The  contact  points  at  "D"  and  "G"  should  be  examined  occasionally  to  see  that  they 
are  properly  adjusted  and  making  contact. 

Once  every  two  weeks  the  large  hand  on  this  meter  must  be  set  back  20  points  in  order 
to  give  the  battery  its  overcharge.  Never  reset  the  hand  past  "70."  To  set  the  ampere-hour 
meter,  disengage  glass  cover  from  bayonet  lock,  making  sure  to  lift  the  large  hand  before 
trying  to  turn.' 


Fig. 


CONTROLLER  SWITCH 

The  controller  switch  is  an  eight-pole  double  throw  switch. 

When  the  controller  switch  is  in  running  position  "A"  it  connects  four  3-cell  sections  of 


DEL  CO    SYSTEMS 


155 


the  storage  battery  in  parallel,  giving  six  volts,  and  also  making  the  proper  connection  for 
lighting,  magneto  type  ignition,  and  charging. 

When  the  controller  switch  is  thrown  to  position  "B"  this  connects  the  four  3-cell  sec- 
tions of  the  storage  battery  in  series,  giving  twenty-four  volts  and  making  the  proper  con- 
nections for  cranking. 

For  owners  who  drive  at  very  low  speed,  a  special  shunt  wire  will  be  furnished  which  will 
increase  the  charging  rate  of  the  battery.  This  resistance  wire  is  connected  between  points 
Resistance  and  Meter. 

Wipe  off  controller  blades  occasionally  with  a  clean  cloth. 


THE  MAGNETIC  LATCH  COIL 

This  is  nothing  more  than  an  ordinary  solenoid  magnet  coil  and  is  connected  in  series 
with  the  starting  switch  and  the  motor.  Its  purpose  is  to  prevent  the  engaging  of  the  starting 
mechanism  while  the  engine  is  running  and  to  assist  in  engaging  this  mechanism  when  the 
engine  is  standing  still.  Note  the  following  adjustments: 


V 


Adjustment  of  the  Magnetic  Clutch.  The  magnetic  clutch  arm  U  should  be  so 
adjusted  by  the  adjusting  screw  Z  that  the  arm  T  will  pass  the  arm  V,  just  allowing  the  points 
indicated  by  the  arrows  to  clear  each  other  when  the  main  clutch  is  disengaged,  and  when  the 
magnetic  latch  is  in  the  disengaged  position.  Screwing  up  on  the  adjusting  screw  Z  decreases 
the  distance  between  points  T  and  V.  Unscrewing  the  adjusting  screw  Z  increases  the  distance 
between  these  points. 

VOLTAGE  REGULATOR 

The  voltage  regulator  serves  to  control  the  amount  of  current  flowing  from  the  generator 
to  the  storage  battery.  Reference  to  Fig.  69  will  assist  in  making  the  construction  and  opera- 
tion clear.  A  magnet  coil  mounted  on  the  top  of  the  bracket  surrounds  the  upper  half  of  the 
mercury  tube.  Within  this  mercury  tube  is  a  plunger  comprising  an  iron  tube  (core)  with  a 
coil  of  resistance  wire  wrapped  around  the  lower  portion  on  top  of  a  mica  insulation.  One 
end  of  this  coil  resistance  wire  is  attached  to  the  tube  (core)  and  the  other  end  is  connected 
to  the  needle  in  the  center  of  the  plunger.  The  lower  portion  of  the  mercury  tube  is  divided 
by  an  insulating  tube  into  two  concentric  wells,  the  plunger  tube  (core)  being  partly  immersed 
in  the  mercury  in  the  outer  well  and  the  needle  immersed  in  the  mercury  in  the  inner  well. 
The  space  in  the  mercury  tube  above  the  mercury  is  filled  with  a  specially  treated  oil  which 
serves  to  protect  the  mercury  from  oxidization  and  to  lubricate  the  plunger. 


156 


INFORMATION 


4_»  /NET 


Fig.  69. 

Inasmuch  as  the  voltage  of  the  battery  varies  with  its  condition  of  charge,  the  amount 
of  current  flowing  through  the  voltage  coil  varies  also.  As  the  current  flowing  through  the 
voltage  coil  increases,  the  plunger  rises,  and  as  the  current  decreases  the  plunger  lowers. 
This  is  due  to  the  variation  in  the  magnetism  produced  by  current  flowing  through  the 
voltage  coil.  When  the  battery  charge  is  low,  the  plunger  assumes  a  low  position  in  the 
mercury  tube,  and  when  the  battery  charge  is  high  the  plunger  assumes  a  high  position  in 
the  mercury  tube  when  current  is  being  generated.  When  the  plunger  is  at  a  low  position 
the  coil  of  resistance  wire  carried  upon  its  lower  portion  is  immersed  in  the  mercury,  and  as 
the  plunger  rises  the  coil  of  resistance  wire  is  withdrawn  from  the  mercury. 

Now,  the  current  to  the  shunt  field  of  the  generator  must  follow  a  path  leading  into  the 
outer  well  of  mercury,  through  the  resistance  wound  on  the  plunger  tube,  to  the  needle  car- 
ried at  the  center  of  the  plunger,  into  the  center  well  of  mercury  and  out  of  the  regulator. 


IN/LET 


PUMP 


Fig.  70, 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


157 


It  will  be  seen  that  as  the  plunger  is  withdrawn  from  the  mercury  more  resistance  is  thrown 
into  this  circuit,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  current  must  pass  through  a  greater  length  of  resist- 
ance wire.  This  greater  resistance  in  the  field  of  the  generator  causes  the  amount  of  current 
flowing  to  the  battery  to  be  gradually  reduced  as  the  battery  nears  a  state  of  complete  charge, 
until  finally  the  plunger  is  almost  completely  withdrawn  from  the  mercury,  throwing  the 
entire  length  of  the  resistance  coil  into  the  field  circuit,  thus  causing  a  condition  of  practical 
electric  balance  between  the  battery  and  generator,  and  obviating  any  possibility  of  over- 
charging the  battery. 

VOLTAGE   REGULATOR 

.(Water  Analogy) 

To  make  the  operation  of  the  Voltage  Regulator  more  easily  understood,  we  give  the 
following  analogy: 

When  the  tank  (storage  battery)  is  empty  (discharged),  little  resistance  is  offered  to  the 
flow  of  water  (current). 

Small  pressure  (low  voltage)  is  therefore  required  to  overcome  this  resistance  and  force 
water  (current)  into  the  tank  (storage  battery)  and  the  valve  (plunger  in  tube)  will  remain 
wide  open  (set  low  in  tube)  allowing  a  large  quantity  of  water  (current)  to  be  pumped  (gen- 
erated). As  the  water  (current)  continues  to  flow  into  the  tank  (storage  battery)  the  pressure 
on  the  line  increases,  and  this  pressure  acting  through  the  pressure  cylinder  (voltage  regulator 
coil)  closes  the  valve  (lifts  the  plunger  out  of  the  mercury)  and  decreases  the  flow  of  water 
(current).  When  the  tank  (storage  battery)  is  about  full  of  water  (fully  charged)  the  valve 
is  nearly  closed  (plunger  nearly  all  out  of  the  mercury)  and  only  a  small  amount  of  water 
(current)  is  pumped  (generated). 


Fig.  71. 

CIRCUIT-BREAKING  RELAY 

The  circuit-breaking  relay  is  an  electro-magnet  .with  a  single  winding.  It  opens  and 
closes  the  circuit  leading  to  the  lamps,  heater  unit,  horn,  and  ignition  apparatus  at  contact  "E." 

When  a  ground  or  short  circuit  gets  on  one  of  the  wires,  it  causes  an  excessive  flow  of 
current,  which  goes  through  the  winding  of  the  circuit-breaking  relay.  The  increased  current 
produces  a  magnetic  pull  between  the  pole  piece  "B"  and  the  armature  "A,"  which  in  turn 
causes  the  extension  "C"  of  the  armature  "A,"  which  in  turn  causes  the  extension  "C"  of  the 
armature  to  give  a  hammer-blow  effect  on  the  point  "D,"  which  opens  the  contact  "E"  and 
cuts  off  the  current  supply.  The  opening  of  the  contact  kills  the  magnetic  pull  between  the 
pole  piece  "B"  and  armature  "A"  and  the  contacts  close  again,  but  are  opened  as  soon  as  the 
contact  is  made. 


158  INFORMATION 

The  relay  will  continue  to  vibrate  until  the  ground  or  short  circuit  is  removed. 

A  current  of  approximately  25  amperes  is  required  to  trip  the  circuit-breaking  relay,  but 
after  it  is  hi  operation  a  current  of  approximately  5  amperes  will  cause  it  to  continue  vibrating 
until  the  ground  or  short  circuit  is  removed. 

The  use  of  the  circuit-breaking  relay  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  fuse  block  and  fuse,  except 
that  it  eliminates  the  necessity  of  replacing  fuses. 

The  relay  will  require  no  adjustment.  Do  not  attempt  to  increase  the  tension  of  the 
spring  "F"  to  overcome  short  circuits  or  grounds.  Remove  the  short  circuit  or  ground  from 
the  system  and  the  relay  will  operate  properly. 

CURRENT  REGULATOR  ON  COLE  4-40 

The  current  regulator,  which  is  mounted  on  the  top  cover  of  the  motor  generator,  con- 
sists of  a  magnet  coil  arid  pivoted  armature  carrying  a  contact  on  the  upper  end. 

The  coil  consists  of  three  windings,  one  of  which  is  a  heavy  wire  and  carries  the  full 
output  of  the  generator  which  produces  the  major  magnetic  attraction  for  opening  the  con- 
tacts. The  second  winding  is  very  small  wire  connected  across  the  tungsten  contacts,  and  is 
shown  in  the  circuit  diagram,  Fig.  M,  page  165,  in  which  the  current  flows  only  when  the 
contacts  are  open  and  is  so  connected  that  its  magnetic  effect  opposes  the  magnetic  effect  of 
the  heavy  winding.  The  third  winding  consists  of  comparatively  few  turns  of  resistance 
wire,  which  is  also  connected  across  the  contacts.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
major  part  of  the  field  current  when  the  contacts  are  open. 

Its  Purpose.  The  purpose  of  the  current  regulator  is  to  control  the  charging  current. 
It  does  this  by  controlling  the  current  through  the  shunt  field  winding,  which  in  turn  controls 
the  magnetic  field  of  the  generator,  and  therefore  the  output  or  charging  rate. 

Its  Operation.  The  tungsten  contacts  are  held  together  by  the  spring  against  the 
magnetic  attraction  of  the  charging  current  flowing  through  the  coil  until  this  current  reaches 
the  value  at  which  the  regulator  is  set,  this  having  been  established  at  approximately  fifteen 
amperes;  the  charging  current  will  reach  this  value  at  from  600  to  700  R.  P.  M.  of  the  gen- 
erator. At  higher  speeds  the  contacts  open  and  insert  resistance  in  the  shunt  field  circuit, 
which  decreases  the  output  of  the  generator,  which  in  turn  allows  the  contacts  to  close  and 
the  operation  is  repeated,  causing  the  contacts  to  vibrate  very  rapidly — in  fact,  the  vibration 
is  so  rapid  that  it  is  invisible  to  the  eye,  but  it  must  not  be  understood  that  the  regulator  is 
not  working  because  this  vibration  is  invisible  and  at  the  higher  speeds  the  contact  points 
remain  open,  at  which  time  sufficient  field  current  is  conducted  through  the  fine  winding  and 
the  resistance  winding  to  allow  the  generator  to  deliver  a  full  charging  current,  and  the  con- 
tacts are  not  subjected  to  any  wear  at  this  time. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  there  is  very  little  current  conducted  through  these  contacts 
at  any  tune,  and  that  no  current  is  conducted  through  them  at  high  speeds,  and  that  no 
sparking  is  possible,  there  is  practically  no  wear  on  them.  Therefore,  the  adjustment  remains 
permanent  and  no  adjusting  of  this  regulator  is  necessary.  The  original  adjustment  positively 
must  not  be  changed  without  having  an  ammeter  in  the  charging  circuit  and  checking  the 
charging  current,  as  attempted  adjustment  without  an  ammeter  may  result  in  serious  damage. 

CHARGING  A  STORAGE  BATTERY  FROM  AN  OUTSIDE  SOURCE    ' 

Fig.  72  shows  method  of  charging  a  storage  battery  from  an  outside  source  with  direct 
current.  If  only  alternating  current  is  available  a  rectifier  must  be  used. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


159 


1 1  o  VOL.T  D.  C. 


FUSE:  5 


DOUBL.E  POL.E 
SINGL.E  THROW  SWITCH 


AMMETER 


LAMPS 


O 


O 


Q 


o 


<O 

<o 
«o 
•o 


Fig.  72. 


INDICATION  OF  TROUBLES  AND  THEIR  REMEDIES 

1.  Failure  to  turn  over  at  uniform  speed  when  starter  button  is  depressed. 

2.  Blackening  and  burning  of  the  generator  commutator. 

3.  Failure  to  keep  battery  charged. 

4.  Slow  cranking,  even  with  a  well-charged  battery. 

5.  Cut-out  relay  vibrates. 

6.  Excessive  heating  of  the  generator. 

METHOD  OF  TESTING  OUT  THE  ARMATURE 

If  any  of  the  above  indications  exist,  first  see  that  all  connections  are  complete  and  made 
correctly  in  accordance  with  wiring  diagram. 

Observe  if  the  commutator  has  the  same  appearance  all  the  way  around  or  whether 
some  of  the  segments  are  burnt  more  than  others.  See  whether  it  will  turn  over  uniformly 
when  the  starter  button  is  depressed.  If  the  generator  commutator  is  burnt  black  on  two  or 
more  adjacent  segments,  and  it  revolves  unevenly  when  the  starter  button  is  depressed,  it 
will  almost  invariably  indicate  that  one  or  more  of  the  armature  coils  are  shorted,  which  will 
entirely  eliminate  the  action  of  the  winding  in  question  so  that  the  armature  will  revolve 
only  for  a  fraction  oif  a  revolution.  First,  it  will  usually  cause  the  relay  to  vibrate  while  the 

6 


160 


INFORMATION 


engine  is  running.  If  an  ammeter  is  connected  into  the  circuit,  it  will  swing  back  and  forth 
at  each  revolution,  both  when  the  engine  is  running  and  when  the  starter  button  is  depressed. 
If  this  condition  exists,  the  winding  of  the  armature  may  be  tested  as  follows: 

TO  TEST  FOR  GROUNDS  IN  ARMATURE  WINDING 

In  order  to  make  the  following  test,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  110- volt  circuit  in  series  with 
a  16-candlepower  carbon  filament  lamp.  The  test  may  be  made  with  the  generator  either 
mounted  or  taken  from  the  car. 

1.  Insulate  all  brushes  from  the  commutator  by  placing  sheets  of  paper  between  them. 
Then  with  the  test  points,  test  for  a  ground  from  each  commutator  to  the  frame,  as  shown 
diagrammatically  in  Fig.  73.     Neither  commutator  on  either  generator  or  motor  winding 
should  show  a  ground. 

2.  With  the  brushes  and  commutator  bars  insulated,  as  in  the  first  test,  try  for  con- 
nections between  the  armature  and  generator  winding,  holding  one  test  point  on  a  segment 
of  the  motor  commutator  and  the  other  on  the  generator  commutator.    There  should  be  no 
connection  between  the  two  windings  and  no  grounds  indicated. 

If  the  motor  fails  to  crank  when  the  battery  tests  up  to  normal  specific  gravity,  turn 
on  the  head  lamp  and  operate  the  starting  lever.  If  the  lights  go  out,  it  indicates  a  bad  cell 


O 


If 0  VOL-T    ClRCUl  T 


r— 
Ul  T 

r 

1 

1 

4 

i 

r 

s 

ARMATURE 

O 


no y CUT  A. AMP 


Fig.  73. 

in  the  storage  battery  or  a  loose  or  poor  connection  either  in  the  cell  connectors  or  at  one  end 
of  the  large  cable  leading  from  the  battery  to  the  generator.-  If  the  light  continues  to  burn 
but  the  motor  makes  no  effort  to  crank,  it  is  caused  by  poor  contact  between  the  motor  brushes 
and  commutator  either  due  to  accumulation  of  dirt  or  grease,  or  else  to  improper  spring  ten- 
sion on  the  motor  brushes.  When  this  condition  exists,  added  pressure  such  as  will  result 
from  pressing  the  brushes  firmly  against  the  commutator  with  the  fingers  will  usually  result 
in  the  armature  turning  over,  proving  the  contentions  as  above. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


161 


FAILURE  OP  THE  CUT-OUT  RELAY  TO  OPERATE 

If  the  cut-out  relay  points  stick,  the  generator  armature  will  continue  to  revolve  when  the 
engine  is  stopped.  Smooth  the  contacts  by  drawing  a  piece  of  fine  emery  cloth  between  them 
and  make  sure  that  the  pivot  is  free  mechanically.  This  is  usually  all  that  is  necessary,  al- 
though a  sticking  roller  driving  dutch  at  the  forward  end  of  the  generator  may  cause  a  flow 
of  sufficient  current  through  the  relay  to  give  a  similar  result,  and  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 

Before  adjusting  the  spring  tension,  connect  a  voltmeter  between  the  terminal  No.  1, 
Fig.  74,  on  the  cut-out  relay,  and  the  ground.  With  the  engine  running  very  slowly,  gradually 
increase  its  speed,  and  if  the  spring  tension  is  correct,  the  relay  contacts  will  close  when  the 
meter  indicates  7  volts.  If  the  relay  does  not  close  the  contacts  at  7  volts,  adjust  the  spring 
tension  until  it  does.  This  may  be  done  by  slightly  bending  the  arm  at  the  top  and  to  which 
the  spring  is  attached,  using  a  small  pair  of  pliers  for  this  operation. 

INDICATIONS  OF  VOLTAGE  REGULATOR  TROUBLES 

1.  The  generator  will  not  turn  to  mesh  the  gears  when  the  starter  button  is  pressed,  and 

2.  The  generator  will  not  generate. 

The  two  indications  go  hand  in  hand  in  all  cases. 

In  order  to  test  for  and  remedy  the  above  difficulties,  proceed  as  follows: 
Depress  starter  button  and  if  armature  does  not  revolve,  remove  the  lead  to  the  bottom 
terminal  and  voltage  regulator  tube,  and  connect  the  same  lead  to  the  terminal  above,  as  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  74.    The  armature  will  now  revolve  when  the  starter  button  is  depressed.    In 
order  to  make  repairs,  replace  the  regulator  tube  complete. 


SETND  ARM  TO 
ADJUST  SPRING 
TENSION 


VOLTAGE" 
REGULATOR 


FOR     MAK//V5 


Fig.  74. 

It  is  also  well  to  check  this  out  in  another  way,  namely,  by  allowing  the  engine  to  run, 
and  observing  whether  at  normal  speed  the  cut-out  will  remain  open.  This  will  also  indicate 
a  burnt-out  voltage  regulator  resistance. 

Under  these  same  conditions  if  the  lead  connecting  to  the  binding  post  at  the  bottom  of 
the  tube  is  moved  up  to  the  upper  connection  as  before  referred  to,  the  cut-out  will  immedi- 
ately be  drawn  closed  and  the  generator  will  start  to  charge  the  battery. 


162  INFORMATION 

INDICATIONS  OF  IGNITION  COIL  TROUBLES 

Failure  of  spark  or  poor  spark  on  both  battery  and  magneto  circuits. 

To  test  the  coil,  close  the  switch  on  the  magneto  side  and  turn  motor  over  until  the 
contacts  on  the  magneto  distributor  breaker  come  together  and  observe  if  the  small  resistance 
unit  on  the  distributor  heats  up  properly.  If  it  does  heat  up  properly  and  all  connections 
are  correctly  made  and  the  entire  primary  circuit  on  the  magneto  side  is  intact,  continue 
cranking  over  the  motor  and  observe  whether  the  breaker  points  separate  and  are  properly 
set.  Then  remove  the  high  tension  lead  from  the  coil  and  with  the  rotor  and  head  in  place 
note  the  condition  of  the  spark  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  coil  when  the  starter  is  cranking 
the  engine.  If  the  spark  is  weak,  it  indicates  either  a  defective  coil  or  a  defective  condenser 
on  the  distributor. 

Next,  with  the  battery  contacts  on  the  distributor  closed,  and  the  ignition  switch  on  the 
battery  side,  depress  the  starting  button  and  observe  the  spark  obtained  from  the  coil.  If  the 
spark  is  weak  and  about  the  same  as  obtained  in  the  test  above,  it  indicates  that  the  coil  is 
defective  and  not  the  condenser  on  the  distributor,  but  if  the  spark  is  apparently  strong  in 
this  case  it  indicates  that  the  condenser  on  the  distributor  is  at  fault. 

In  case  of  failure  of  both  battery  and  magneto  systems,  the  probable  causes  are  as  follows: 

1.  Depleted  dry  cells  and  storage  battery. 

2.  Loose  connections  at  switch.     Loose  connection  at  primary  of  coil  or  at  the  dis- 
tributor. 

3.  Grounded  dry  battery  or  wiring  of  battery  system. 

4.  Punctured  rotor. 

Test  for  Nos.  1  and  2  as  above  has  already  been  explained. 

Disconnect  the  dry  battery  wiring  at  the  distributor,  and  if  the  ignition  is  satisfactory 
on  the  magneto  side,  test  the  battery  system  for  a  ground.  No  part  of  the  system,  including 
ignition  relay  and  switch  terminals,  should  be  grounded. 

ROTOR 

If  a  punctured  rotor  exists,  a  good  spark  may  be  obtained  at  the  high  tension  terminal 
of  the  coil,  but  a  weak  spark,  or  perhaps  none  at  all,  will  result  at  the  plugs. 

To  Test  the  Rotor:  Remove  the  high  tension  lead  from  the  distributor  head,  hold  this 
lead  against  the  contact  brush  on  top  of  the  rotor  and  hold  the  bottom  of  the  rotor  about  % 
inch  from  the  engine.  If  a  spark  can  be  made  to  jump  through  the  rotor  to  the  engine,  it 
shows  that  the  rotor  is  punctured. 

HINTS  FOR  LOCATING  TROUBLE 

1.  If  starter,  lights  and  horn  all  fail,  the  trouble  is  in  the  storage  battery  or  its  connec- 
tions, such  as  a  loose  corroded  connection  or  a  broken  battery  jar. 

2.  If  the  lights,  horn,  and  ignition  are  all  O.  K.,  but  the  starter  fails  to  crank,  the  trouble 
is  in  the  motor  generator,  such  as  dirt  or  grease  on  the  motor  commutator,  or  the  motor  brush 
not  dropping  on  the  commutator. 

3.  If  the  starter  fails  to  crank  or  cranks  very  slowly,  and  the  lights  go  out  or  get  very 
dim  while  cranking,  it  indicates  a  loose  or  corroded  connection  on  the  storage  battery,  or  a 
nearly  depleted  storage  battery. 

4.  If  the  motor  fires  properly  on  the  "M"  button,  but  not  on  the  "B"  button,  the  trouble 
must  be  in  the  wiring  between  the  dry  cells  or  the  wires  leading  from  the  dry  cells  to  the  com- 
bination switch,  or  depleted  dry  cells. 

If  the  ignition  works  O.  K.  on  the  "B"  button  and  not  on  the  "M"  button,  the  trouble 
must  be  in  the  leads  running  from  the  storage  battery  to  the  motor  generator,  or  the  lead 
running  from  the  rear  terminal  on  the  generator  to  the  combination  switch,  or  in  the  storage 
battery  itself,  or  its  connections  to  the  frame  of  the  car. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS  163 

5.  If  both  systems  of  ignition  fail  and  the  supply  of  current  from  both  the  storage  battery 
and  dry  cell  is  O.  K.,  the  trouble  must  be  in  the  coil,  resistance  unit,  timer  contacts,  or  con- 
denser. This  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  these  work  in  the  same  capacity  for  each  system 
of  ignition. 

Caution :  Never  run  the  car  with  the  storage  battery  disconnected,  or  while  it  is  off  the 
car.  Very  serious  damage  to  the  motor  generator  may  result  from  such  action. 

Never  remove  any  electrical  apparatus  from  the  car  to  make  any  adjustments  without 
first  disconnecting  the  storage  battery.  This  can  most  conveniently  be  done  by  removing 
the  ground  connection. 

A  careful  inspection  can  never  do  any  harm,  and  it  will  often  locate  a  bad  case  of  trouble. 

Remember,  a  loose,  corroded  or  dirty  connection  on  the  battery  can  put  the  starting 
system  out  of  commission. 

In  wiring  these  systems  follow  the  diagram  closely  and  see  that  all  connections  are  tight, 
and  that  no  loose  or  frayed  ends  protrude  from  any  of  the  connections,  and  that  all  joints  in 
wires  are  carefully  soldered  and  taped. 

Do  not  place  a  wire  so  that  some  moving  part  of  the  engine  will  wear  away  the  insu- 
lation. 

If  the  system  is  not  working  properly,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  check  up  the  wiring  with 
the  wiring  diagram,  and  be  sure  all  connections  are  tight. 

The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  make  sure  your  batteries  are  all  right.  Sometimes  wires  become 
loose  and  batteries  are  short  circuited,  or  they  will  run  down  in  time  even  if  not  used. 

Then,  if  the  apparatus  does  need  adjustment,  follow  the  methods  of  adjustment  as  out- 
lined in  this  book. 


164 


INFORMATION 


o 


INTERNAL    CIRCUITS    OF    MOTOR    GENERATORS 

(See  Contents.) 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


165 


SER/ES, 


/?EV£:RSE-^^.  I      CURRENT 
SERIES  ^^  |       REGULATOR 
X 


-A/WVWW^ 


GELN. 

SHUNT 

FIG.-  M 


o  o  o 


F/G.-  N 


INTERNAL    CIRCUITS    OF    MOTOR    GENERATORS 

(See  Contents.) 


SECTION  5 

1916  DELCO  SYSTEMS 

AND 
INFORMATION  ON  THE  FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS: 

Lubrication  of  Motor- Generators.  Use  of  the  Ammeter  and  How 
to  Test  It.  Induction  Coils  and  Methods  of  Testing  Them.  Dis- 
tributors and  Timers.  How  to  Test  Armatures.  Motoring  Gen- 
erators. Generating  Electrical  Energy.  New  Third  Brush  Regu- 
lation. Resistance  Unit  and  Method  of  Testing  It.  Checking  and 
Timing  of  Ignition  Systems.  General  Information.  Ordering 

Parts. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


167 


Fig.  1. 


168 


INFORMATION 


1  csci 

^ 

—* 
K 

Fig.  2. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


169 


& 


& 


5tt 


p 


fi 


_S 


2  J 

ii 


§5     LjLAAWW\Ar-|        r-C^-*-! 

ka  < 

^nnrv-AAAAA4 — 4-^^-fc.s 


Fig.  3. 


170 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  4. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS 


171 


Fig.  5. 


172 


O/MMBR 

Vj>   j 

T 

i 

L       .J   k                                                            <t 

i»" 

..   «B 

'                                                   S~\  % 
//VQ  I 

Fig.  6. 


DEL  CO    SYSTEMS 


173 


ii  OIST.  T   I  I    I  co/voe^se* 


Fig.  7. 


174  INFORMATION 

LUBRICATION 

There  are  five  places  to  lubricate  Delco  Systems. 

No.  1.     The  grease  cup  for  lubricating  the  motor  clutch. 

No.  2.     Oiler  for  lubricating  the  generator  clutch  and  forward  armature  bearing. 

No.  3.  The  oil  hole  for  lubricating  the.bearings  on  the  rear  of  the  armature  shaft.  This 
is  exposed  when  the  rear  end  cover  is  removed.  This  should  receive  oil  once  a  week. 

No.  4.  The  oil  hole  in  the  distributor  for  lubricating  the  top  bearing  of  the  distributor 
shaft.  This  should  receive  oil  once  a  week. 

No.  5.  This  is  the  inside  of  the  distributor  head.  This  should  be  lubricated  with  a 
small  amount  of  vaseline,  carefully  applied  two  or  three  tunes  during  the  first  2,000  miles 
running  of  the  car,  after  which  it  will  require  no  attention.  This  is  to  secure  a  burnished 
track  for  the  motor  brush  on  the  distributor  head.  This  grease  should  be  sparingly  applied 
and  the  head  wiped  clean  from  dust  and  dirt. 

THE  AMMETER 

The  ammeter  is  to  indicate  the  current  that  is  going  to  or  coming  from  the  storage  battery, 
with  the  exception  of  the  cranking  current.  When  the  engine  is  not  running  and  current  is 
being  used  for  lights,  the  ammeter  shows  the  amount  of  current  that  is  being  used,  and  the 
ammeter  hand  points  to  the  discharge  side  as  the  current  is  being  discharged  from  the  battery. 

When  the  engine  is  running  above  generating  speeds  and  no  current  is  being  used  for 
lights  or  horn,  the  ammeter  will  show  charge.  This  is  the  amount  of  current  that  is  being 
charged  into  the  battery.  If  current  is  being  used  for  lights,  ignition,  and  horn  in  excess  of 
the  amount  that  is  being  generated,  the  ammeter  will  show  a  discharge  as  the  excess  current 
must  be  discharged  from  the  battery,  but  at  all  ordinary  speeds  the  ammeter  will  read  charge. 

IGNITION  COIL 

The  coil  proper  consists  of  a  round  core  or  a  number  of  small  iron  wires.  Wound  around 
tlijs  and  insulated  from  it  is  the  primary  winding.  It  is  the  interrupting  of  the  primary  cur- 
rent that  flows  through  the  primary  by  the  tuner  contacts,  together  with  the  action  of  the  con- 
denser, which  causes  a  rapid  demagnetization  of  the  iron  core  of  the  coil  that  induces  the  high 
tension  current  in  the  secondary  winding.  This  secondary  winding  consists  of  several  thou- 
sand turns  of  very  fine  copper  wire,  the  different  layers  of  which  are  well  insulated  from  each 
other  and  from  the  primary  winding. 

It  is  from  a  terminal  about  midway  on  top  of  the  coil  that  the  high  tension  current  is 
conducted  to  the  distributor,  where  it  is  distributed  to  the  proper  cylinders  by  the  rotor. 

DISTRIBUTOR  AND  TIMER 

The  distributor  and  timer,  together  with  the  ignition  coil,  spark  plugs,  and  wiring,  con- 
stitute the  ignition  system. 

The  proper  ignition  of  an  internal  combustion  engine  consists  of  igniting  the  mixture  in 
each  cylinder  at  such  a  time  that  it  will  be  completely  burned  at  the  time  the  piston  reaches 
dead  center  on  the  compression  stroke.  A  definite  period  of  tune  is  required  from  the  time  the 
spark  occurs  at  the  spark  plug  until  the  mixture  is  completely  expanded.  It  is  therefore 
apparent  that  as  the  speed  of  the  engine  increases  the  tune  the  spark  occurs  must  be  advanced 
with  respect  to  the  crank  shaft,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  Delco  Ignition  Systems  are 
fitted  with  an  automatic  spark  control. 

The  quality  of  the  mixture  and  the  amount  of  compression  are  also  factors  in  the  time 
required  for  the  burning  to  be  complete.  Thus  a  rich  mixture  burns  quicker  than  a  lean  one. 
For  this  reason  the  engine  will  stand  more  advanced  with  a  half-open  throttle  than  with  a 
wide-open  throttle,  and  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  timing  of  ignition  due  to  these  varia- 
tions and  to  retard,  the  spark  for  starting,  idling,  and  carburetor  adjusting,  the  Delco  dis- 
tributor also  has  a  manual  control. 


DELCO    SYSTEMS  175 

With  the  spark  lever  set  at  the  running  position  on  the  steering  wheel  (which  is  nearly 
all  the  way  up  on  the  quadrant),  the  automatic  features  give  the  proper  spark  for  all  speeds 
excepting  a  wide-open  throttle  at  low  speeds,  at  which  time  the  spark  lever  should  be  slightly 
retarded.  When  the  ignition  is  too  far  advanced  it  causes  loss  of  power  and  a  knocking  sound 
within  the  engine.  With  too  late  a  spark  there  is  a  loss  of  power  (which  is  usually  not  noticed 
excepting  by  an  experienced  driver  or  one  very  familiar  with  the  car);  heating  of  the  engine 
and  excessive  consumption  of  fuel  is  the  result. 

The  timer  contacts  and  their  adjustments  are  two  of  the  most  important  points  of  an 
automobile.  Very  little  attention  will  keep  these  in  perfect  condition.  These  are  tungsten 
metal,  which  is  extremely  hard,  and  requires  a  very  high  temperature  to  melt.  Under  normal 
conditions  they  wear  or  burn  very  slightly,  and  will  very  seldom  require  attention;  but  in  the 
event  of  abnormal  voltage,  such  as  would  be  obtained  by  running  with  the.  battery  removed, 
with  the  ignition  resistance  unit  shorted  out,  or  with  a  defective  condenser,  these  contacts 
burn  very  rapidly,  and  in  a  short  time  will  cause  serious  ignition  trouble.  The  car  should  not 
be  operated  with  the  battery  removed. 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  check  the  resistance  unit  by  observing  its  heating  when  the 
ignition  button  is  out  and  the  contacts  in  the  distributor  are  closed.  If  it  is  shorted  out  it 
will  not  heat  up,  and  will  cause  missing  at  low  speeds. 

A  defective  condenser  such  as  will  cause  contact  trouble  will  cause  serious  missing  of 
the  ignition.  Therefore  any  one  of  these  troubles  are  comparatively  easy  to  locate  and  should 
be  immediately  remedied. 

The  rotor  distributes  the  high  tension  current  from  the  center  of  the  distributor  to  the 
proper  cylinder.  Care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  distributor  head  is  properly  located, 
otherwise  the  rotor  brush  will  not  be  in  contact  with  the  terminal  at  the  tune  the  spark  occurs. 
The  distributor  head  and  rotor  should  be  lubricated  as  described  under  the  heading  "Lubri- 
cation." 

TOOLS  AND  TESTS 

Too  often  the  mechanic  is  handicapped  by  not  having  the  proper  tools  to  work  with. 
No  mechanic  would  attempt  to  overhaul  an  engine  with  the  tools  included  in  the  car  equip- 
ment, neither  should  he  expect  to  make  ah1  of  the  practical  tests  on  the  electrical  system 
without  some  additional  equipment. 

A  voltmeter  and  an  ammeter  or  a  combination  volt-ammeter  is  the  one  most  important 
instrument  that  the  mechanic  can  use  in  this  work.  The  important  points  to  remember 
when  using  these  instruments  are  as  follows: 

No.  1.  Do  not  test  the  storage  battery  with  an  ammeter  as  dry  batteries  are  tested. 
(This  will  positively  ruin  the  meter.) 

No.  2.  In  taking  an  ammeter  reading  in  the  circuit  where  the  approximate  flow  of  cur- 
rent is  not  known;  always  use  the  highest  scale  on  the  meter  and  make  the  connection  where 
it  can  be  quickly  disconnected  in  the  event  of  a  high  reading. 

No.  3.  If  the  meter  reads  backwards,  reverse  the  wires  to  the  meter  terminals.  The 
meter  will  not  be  damaged  by  passing  a  current  through  it  in  the  reverse  direction  as  long  as 
the  amount  of  the  current  is  not  over  the  capacity  of  the  meter. 

No.  4.  No  damage  will  be  done  by  connecting  a  voltmeter  as  an  ammeter  so  long  as  the 
voltage  of  the  system  is  not  above  the  range  of  the  voltmeter,  but  the  ammeter  should  not  be 
used  as  a  voltmeter. 

No.  5.  A  high-class  instrument  of  this  type  will  stand  a  momentary  overload  of  from 
200  to  400%.  If  the  user  is  careful  not  to  make  his  connections  permanently  until  the  current 
is  normal,  he  will  very  seldom  injure  the  instrument. 

Next  to  the  combination  volt-ammeter  the  most  important  arrangement  for  the  mechanic 
is  a  set  of  test  points  to  use  in  connection  with  the  electric  light  circuit.  This  is  very  easily 
made  by  tapping  one  wire  of  an  ordinary  extension  lamp,  splicing  the  wires  on  to  which  are 
attached  suitable  points  with  insulated  handles  in  order  that  these  may  be  handled  with  no 


176  INFORMATION 

danger  of  electrical  shock.  With  a  set  of  test  points  as  described  the  lamp  will  burn  when  the 
test  points  are  together  or  when  there  is  an  electrical  connection  between  the  points.  This 
will  give  more  satisfactory  results  for  testing  for  grounds,  leaks,  or  open  connections  than  will 
a  bell  or  buzzer  used  with  dry  batteries,  as  the  voltage  is  higher  and  it  requires  a  small  amount 
of  current  to  operate  the  lamp.  With  a  bell  or  buzzer  a  ground  or  open  connection  may  exist, 
but  the  resistance  is  so  high  that  enough  current  will  not  be  forced  through  it  by  the  dry 
batteries  to  operate  the  bell  or  buzzer. 

No  harm  can  be  done  to  any  part  of  the  Delco  apparatus  by  test  points  as  described 
above  when  the  ordinary  carbon  or  tungsten  lamp  is  used  in  testing  purposes. 

MOTORING  GENERATOR 

The  motoring' of  the  generator  is  one  of  the  most  important  operations  for  the  mechanic 
to  familiarize  himself  with,  as  the  same  wiring  and  parts  of  the  generator  are  used  during  this 
operation  as  when  generating.  Therefore  if  the  apparatus  will  perform  this  operation  properly, 
it  is  very  sure  to  generate  when  driven  by  the  engine. 

An  electric  motor  is  caused  to  rotate  by  the  magnetic  attraction  and  repulsion  between 
the  iron  core  of  the  armature  and  the  pole  pieces  which  surround  it. 

During  the  motoring  of  the  generator  the  pole  pieces  are  magnetized  by  the  current 
through  the  shunt  field  winding.  The  armature  is  magnetized  by  the  current  through  the 
brushes  and  generator  winding  on  the  armature.  It  is  necessary  that  current  flow  through 
both  of  these  circuits  before  the  armature  will  revolve.  It  is  a  familiar  mistake  to  think  that 
when  current  is  passing  only  through  the  armature  the  armature  should  revolve.  The  ammeter 
on  the  combination  switch  can  be  depended  upon  to  determine  the  amount  of  current  flowing 
through  the  generator  winding  during  this  operation.  Both  the  ignition  current  and  the 
shunt  field  current  flow  through  this  meter,  in  addition  to  the  current  through  the  generator 
armature.  The  timing  contacts  should  be  open.  This  will  cut  off  the  ignition  current  and 
leave  only  the  armature  and  shunt  field  current.  Since  the  shunt  field  current  is  only  lj^ 
amperes,  the  reading  of  the  ammeter  will  readily  indicate  whether  or  not  current  is  flowing 
through  the  generator  armature  winding. 

Should  it  be  found  that  the  current  through  both  the  armature  and  the  shunt  field  wind- 
ing is  normal  and  the  armature  still  does  not  revolve,  the  trouble  may  be  caused  by  either 
(1)  the  armature  being  tight  mechanically,  due  to  either  a  sticking  driving  clutch,  trouble  in 
the  bearings,  or  foreign  particles  jammed  between  the  armature  and  pole  pieces.  This  can 
be  readily  tested  by  removing  the  front  end  cover  of  the  generator  and  turning  the  armature 
from  the  commutor  end;'  (2)  the  shunt  field  winding  or  the  generator  armature  winding  may 
be  defective  in  some  manner,  such  as  shorted,  grounded,  or  connected  to  the  motor  winding. 
Any  one  of  these  would  show  an  abnormal  reading  of  the  ammeter  in  some  position  of  the 
armature  when  the  armature  is  revolved  by  hand. 

If  the  ammeter  vibrates  at  each  revolution  of  the  armature  during  the  motoring  of  the 
generator,  and  when  the  engine  is  running  at  low  speeds,  this  is  very  conclusive  proof  that  the 
armature  has  either  a  ground,  open  coil,  shorted  coil,  or  is  connected  to  the  motor  winding. 

TESTING  ARMATURES 

Complete  tests  to  locate  any  armature  trouble  can  be  very  readily  made  by  the  mechanic 
with  no  other  equipment  than  the  set  of  test  points  as  formerly  described.  The  indication  of 
the  different  armature  troubles  and  tests  are  as  follows: 

No.  1.  Shortened  Generator  Coil.  Charging  rate  low;  meter  vibrates  when  motor- 
ing the  generator,  or  possibly  the  generator  will  only  turn  for  a  part  of  a  revolution;  meter 
vibrates  when  engine  is  running  at  low  speeds;  two  or  more  adjacent  commutator  bars  burn 
and  blacken;  cranking  is  slower  than  normal,  but  if  only  one  coil  is  shorted  this  latter  will  not 
be  noticed. 

No.  2.  Open  Generator  Coil.  Charging  rate  is  low;  meter  vibrates  when  motoring 
the  generato",  and  when  running  at  low  speeds,  the  same  as  with  the  shorted  generator  coil; 


DELCO    SYSTEMS  177 

severe  sparking  at  the  generator  brushes  when  the  engine  is  running,  which  causes  serious 
burning  at  one  commutator  bar.  This  will  not  affect  the  cranking. 

No.  3.  Grounded  Generator  Coil.  This  will  very  seriously  affect  the  cranking,  caus- 
ing it  to  be  slow,  and  will  soon  discharge  the  battery  with  practically  no  charge  from  the  gen- 
erator; will  cause  burning  of  the  commutator  bars;  is  tested  by  insulating  all  brushes  from  the 
commutator  and  testing  with  the  test  points  from  the  generator  commutator  to  the  frame  of 
the  machine.  If  grounded  the  test  light  will  burn. 

No.  4.  Connected  Motor  and  Generator  Windings.  The  indications  of  this  are 
practically  the  same  as  for  a  grounded  generator  coil,  and  is  tested  by  insulating  all  brushes 
and  testing  with  test  points  between  the  two  commutators.  The  light  will  burn  if  the  two 
windings  are  connected. 

No.  5.  Grounded  Motor  Winding.  This  will  rapidly  discharge  the  storage  battery; 
is  tested  by  insulating  the  motor  brushes  from  the  commutator,  and  test  with  the  test  points 
from  the  motor  commutator  to  the  frame.  The  light  will  burn  if  the  winding  is  grounded. 

The  last  three  tests  can  be  made  with  the  armature  removed  from  the  frame. 

IGNITION  RESISTANCE  UNIT 

The  ignition  resistance  unit  is  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  more  nearly  uniform  current 
through  the  primary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil  at  the  time  the  distributor  contacts  open. 
It  consists  of  a  number  of  turns  of  iron  wire,  the  resistance  of  which  is  considerably  more 
than  the  resistance  of  the  primary  winding  of  the  ignition  coil.  If  the  ignition  resistance 
unit  was  not  in  the  circuit  and  the  coil  was  so  constructed  to  give  the  proper  spark  at  high 
speeds,  the  primary  current  at  low  speeds  would  be  several  times  its  normal  value,  with  serious 
results  to  the  contacts.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  primary  current  is  limited  by 
the  resistance  of  the  coil  and  resistance  unit  by  the  impedence  of  the  coil.  (Impedence  is  the 
choking  effect  which  opposes  any  alternating  or  pulsating  current  magnetizing  the  iron  core.) 
The  impedence  increases  as  the  speed  of  the  pulsations  increase.  At  low  speeds  the  resistance 
of  the  unit  increases,  due  to  the  slight  increases  of  current  heating  the  resistance  wire. 

CONDENSER 

The  condenser  consists  of  two  long  strips  of  folded  tinfoil  insulated  from  each  other  by 
paraffined  or  oiled  paper.  The  condenser  has  the  property  of  being  able  to  hold  a  certain 
quantity  of  electrical  energy,  and,  like  the  storage  battery,  will  discharge  this  energy  if  there 
is  any  circuit  between  its  terminal.  As  the  distributor  contacts  open  the  magnetism  commences 
to  die  out  of  the  iron  core;  this  induces  a  voltage  in  both  the  primary  and  secondary  windings 
of  the  coil.  This  induced  voltage  in  the  primary  winding  amounts  to  from  100  to  125  volts. 
This  charges  the  condenser,  which  immediately  discharges  itself  through  the  primary  winding 
of  the  coil  in  the  reverse  direction  from  which  the  ignition  current  originally  flows.  This 
discharge  of  the  condenser  causes  the  iron  of  the  coil  to  be  quickly  demagnetized  and  remag- 
netizes  in  the  reverse  direction,  with  the  result  that  the  change  of  magnetism  within  the 
secondary  winding  is  very  rapid,  thus  producing  a  high  voltage  in  the  secondary  winding, 
which  is  necessary  for  ignition  purposes. 

In  addition  to  rapidly  demagnetizing  the  coil  of  the  condenser  prevents  sparking  at  the 
breaker  contacts — thus  it  is  evident  that  the  action  of  the  condenser  can  very  seriously  affect 
the  amount  of  the  spark  from  the  secondary  winding  and  the  amount  of  sparking  obtained  at 
the  timer  contacts.  Therefore  these  are  the  means  that  are  used  for  locating  a  defective 
condenser. 

The  action  of  the  timer  contacts  can  be  observed  by  removing  the  distributor  head  and 
cranking  the  engine  with  the  starter.  A  defective  condenser  will  cause  serious  sparking.  A 
slight  spark  will  sometimes  be  observed  with  a  good  condenser. 

The  mechanic  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  spark  obtained  by  removing  the  wire 
from  one  of  the  plugs  and  letting  the  spark  jump  to  the  engine  (not  to  the  spark  plug).  A  good 
coil  will  produce  a  spark  with  a  maximum  jump  of  at  least  yi  inch,  provided  other  conditions 
are  normal. 


178  INFORMATION 

IGNITION  COIL  AND  TESTS 

The  ignition  coil  is  readily  tested  by  the  test  points.  The  primary  circuit  is  tested  be- 
tween the  terminals  on  the  top  of  the  coil  at  the  rear.  The  secondary  winding  can  be  tested 
for  open  circuit  by  testing  the  high  tension  terminal  to  either  of  the  other  terminals.  The 
test  lamp  will  not  burn  when  making  this  test,  on  account  of  the  high  resistance  of  the  secondary 
winding,  but  a  spark  can  be  obtained  when  the  test  point  is  removed  from  the  terminal.  No 
spark  will  be  obtained  if  the  winding  is  open. 

A  short  in  the  secondary  winding  causes  the  spark  obtained  from  a  wire  removed  at  the 
plug  to  be  much  weaker,  and  will  cause  missing  when  the  engine  is  pulling,  especially  at  low 
speeds. 

CHECKING  THE  AMMETER 

Should  the  charging  rate  appear  to  be  abnormally  low  with  no  apparent  reason,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  check  the  ammeter  by  connecting  another  meter  in  series  with  it.  Connect  in 
the  small  line  from  the  switch  to  the  terminal  on  the  generator. 

These  are  very  reliable  meters,  but  automobile  service  is  extremely  hard  service  for  a 
sensitive  ammeter. 

TO  TIME  THE  IGNITION 

No.  1.     Fully  retard  the  spark  lever  on  the  steering  wheel. 

No.  2.  Turn  engine  to  the  dead  center  mark  on  the  flywheel  with  No.  1  cylinder  on  the 
firing  stroke. 

No.  3.  Loosen  screw  on  center  of  timing  mechanism  and  locate  the  proper  lobe  of  the 
cam.  Turn  until  rotor  brush  comes  under  the  position  which  No.  1  high  tension  terminal  on 
the  distributor  head  occupies  when  the  head  is  properly  located. 

No.  4.  Set  this  lobe  of  the  cam  so  that  when  the  back  lash  of  the  distributor  gears  is 
rocked  forward  the  contacts  will  be  open,  and  when  the  back  lash  is  rocked  backward  the 
contacts  will  just  close.  Tighten  the  screw  and  replace  rotor  and  head.  The  shaft  runs  clock- 
wise when  viewed  from  the  top,  and  the  spark  occurs  when  the  contacts  open. 

• 
GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  CARE  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  SYSTEM 

Do  not  fail  to  heed  the  battery  instructions  contained  in  Section  1. 

By  all  means  provide  yourself  with  a  hydrometer  syringe. 

The  battery  will  require  more  care  than  all  the  other  electrical  appliances. 


SECTION  6 

AUTOMOBILE   ELECTRIC  STARTERS  AND 
ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS 

Atwater-Kent,  Bijur,  Delco,  Simms-Huff,  Auto-Lite,  Remy,  Wagner, 

Ward  Leonard,  Dyneto,   Bosch,   Chalmers   (Entz),   Splitdorf-Apelco, 

Gray  &  Davis,  and  North-East  Systems  for  Motor  Cars. 


Automobile  Electric  Starters  and 
Electric  Systems 

THE  ATWATER  KENT  SYSTEM  OF  IGNITION 

This  system  of  ignition  is  used  on  many  makes  of  cars  of  high  price,  as  well  as  those  of  a 
medium  price.  Regardless  of  the  car  it  is  used  on,  its  operation  is  the  same.  Very  little  care 
need  be  given  this  system,  and  when  it  does  require  care  the  work  of  setting  a  part  right  is 
simple  and  is  easily  done  by  the1  average  mechanic.  Note  the  following  instruction  and  cuts, 
which  show  the  operation  of  the  system,  wiring,  circuit  diagram,  and  other  interesting  parts. 
By  following  this  instruction  the  user  should  be  in  a  position  to  care  for  a  system,  with  the 
exception  of  extreme  cases,  where  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  the  car  with  this  system  to  a 
repair  shop.  This  is  generally  the  case  where  open  circuits  occur  in  the  system  of  wiring,  or 
the  wires  that  connect  the  parts  together  become  grounded. 

The  Atwater  Kent  System  consists  of  three  parts: 

1.  The  Unisparker,  which  combines  the  special  form  of  contact  maker,  which  is  the 
basic  principle  of  this  system,  and  a  high-tension  distributor. 

2.  The  Coil,  which  consists  of  a  simple  primary  and  secondary  winding,  with  con- 
denser— all  imbedded  in  a  special  insulating  compound.     The  coil  has  no  vibrator  or  other 
moving  parts. 

3.  The  Ignition  Switch. 

The  Atwater  Kent  System  is  manufactured  in  two  forms:  Type  "K-2,"  with  Automatic 
Spark  Control,  and  Type  "H,"  for  use  in  connection  with  the  regular  spark  lever.  The  elec- 
trical and  mechanical  features  of  the  two  systems  are  identical,  except  that  in  the  Type  "H" 
System  the  automatic  spark  control  governor  is  omitted. 

THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  ATWATER  KENT  SYSTEM 

The  operation  of  the  Unisparker  is  shown  below.  This  consists  of  a  notched  shaft,  one 
notch  for  each  cylinder,  which  rotates  at  one-half  the  engine  speed,  a  lifter  or  trigger,  which 
is  pulled  forward  by  the  rotation  of  the  shaft,  and  a  spring  which  pulls  the  lifter  back  to  its 
original  position.  A  hardened  steel  latch  and  a  pair  of  contact  points  complete  the  device. 

Figures  1,  2,  3,  4  show  the  operation  of  the  contact  maker  very  clearly.  It  will  be  noted 
that  in  Fig.  1  the  lifter  is  being  pulled  forward  by  the  notched  shaft.  When,  pulled  forward 
as  far  as  the  shaft  will  carry  it  (Fig.  2),  the  lifter  is  suddenly  pulled  back  by  the  recoil  of  the 
lifter  spring.  In  returning  it  strikes  against  the  latch,  throwing  this  against  the  contact  spring 
and  closing  the  contact  for  a  very  brief  instant — far  too  quickly  for  the  eye  to  follow  the 
movement  (Fig.  3). 

Fig.  4  shows  the  lifter  ready  to  be  pulled  forward  by  the  next  notch. 

Note  that  the  circuit  is  closed  only  during  the  instant  of  the  spark.  No  current  can 
flow  at  any  other  time,  not  even  if  the  switch  is  left  "On"  when  the  motor  is  running. 

Note  that  no  matter  how  slow  or  how  fast  the  shaft  is  turning,  the  lifter  spring  will  always 
pull  the  lifter  back  at  exactly  the  same  speed,  and  therefore  the  spark  will  always  be  the  same, 
no  matter  how  fast  or  how  slow  the  engine  is  running. 

The  contact  points  are  adjustable  only  for  normal  wear.  All  other  parts  of  the  contact 

180 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


181 


maker  are  of  glass-hard  steel,  and  are  not  subject  to  wear.  They  will  outlast  the  motor, 
because  they  move  but  a  very  short  distance,  do  very  little  work,  and  all  friction  has  been 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  • 


CONTACT 

SPRING 


Fig.  1. 
Contact  Open. 


Fig.   3. 

Contact  Made. 


Fig.   2. 

Contact  Still  Open. 


Fig.   4. 

Contact  Broken. 


By  means  of  the  distributor,  which  forms  the  upper  part  of  the  Unisparker,  the  high- 
tension  current  from  the  coil  is  conveyed  by  the  rotating  distributor  block,  which  seats  on 
the  end  of  the  Unisparker,  to  each  of  the  four  spark  plug  terminals  in  the  order  of  firing. 

An  important  advantage  which  the  Atwater  Kent  distributor  possesses  is  the  fact  that 
there  are  no  sliding  contacts  or  carbon  brushes,  the  distributor  blade  being  so  arranged  that 
it  passes  close  to  the  spark  plug  terminal  without  quite  touching,  thus  permitting  the  spark 
to  jump  the  slight  gap,  and  eliminating  all  wear  and  trouble  due  to  sliding  contacts 


DIRECTION  OF  ROTATION 

The  Type  "K-2"  Unisparker  is  manufactured  only  for  clockwise  rotation  when  looking 
down  on  the  top  of  the  distributor.  In  other  words,  the  distributor  block  on  the  top  of  the 
shaft  should  rotate  the  same  as  the  hands  of  a  clock. 

The  Type  "H"  System,  without  the  automatic  spark  control,  is  made  for  either  rotation. 
It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  a  given  Type  "H"  Unisparker  will  not  operate  in  both 
directions,  but  only  in  the  direction  for  which  it  is  specified. 

Coil.  Three  coils  are  furnished  with  the  Type  "K-2"  or  "H"  Atwater  Kent  System,  a 
simple  Plate  Switch  coil,  the  same  coil  with  the  addition  of  a  more  elaborate  and  heavier 
Kick  Switch,  and  Underhood  coil  with  separate  switch.  Both  Plate  and  Kick  Switches  are 
provided  with  push-button  for  producing  extra  hot  starting  sparks. 


182 


INFORMATION 
UNISPARKER  WITH  MAGNETO  MOUNTING 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.   6. 


The  Underhood  Coil  is  the  one  commonly  used  by  manufacturers  as  regular  equipment. 
It  is  intended  to  be  mounted  in  some  convenient  position  under  the  hood  of  the  car,  and 
while  it  is  built  to  stand  the  high  temperatures  incidental  to  this  location,  it  should  be  placed 
in  as  cool  a  position  as  possible. 

Switch.  The  Atwater  Kent  Reversing  Switch  is  installed  by  cutting  a  hole  3  3-16  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  dash  and  setting  in  switch  flush,  fastening  it  with  the  three  flat-headed 
screws  furnished  with  the  switch. 

Wiring.  The  wiring  of  the  Atwater  Kent  System  is  very  simple,  and  is  shown  in  the 
two  diagrams,  Figs.  6  and  7. 

For  the  primary  or  battery  circuits,  use  well  insulated  and  braided  primary  wire,  and 
see  that  it  is  protected  against  rubbing  or  abrasion  wherever  it  comes  in  contact  with  metal. 
Where  the  lighting  and  starting  battery  is  used  for  ignition,  two  wires  from  the  ignition  system 
should  run  directly  to  the  battery  terminals.  They  should  not  be  connected  in  on  any  other 
circuit. 

The  contact  maker  of  the  Unisparker  is  connected  to  the  coil  by  means  of  a  length  of 
twisted  double  conductor  cord,  which  is  furnished  with  the  outfit.  Do  not  under  any  condi- 
tions use  separate  wires  for  this  connection. 

The  high  tension  wiring  from  the  distributor  to  the  coil  and  plugs  should  be  the  best 
possible  grade  of  secondary  wire  5-16  inch  in  diameter  outside  of  insulation.  The  manner  of 
making  connections  to  the  distributor  terminals  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  It  is  recommended  that 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


183 


the  connections  between  the  spark  plugs  and  the  distributor  be  left  until  the  Unisparker  is 
"timed,"  so  that  the  proper  distributor  points  can  be  connected  up  in  the  correct  order  of 
firing. 

In  making  these  connections,  the  high-tension  wire  is  bared  for  a  space  of  about  lyi 
inches,  and  passed  through  the  hole  in  the  secondary  terminal.     The  end  of  the  wire  is  then 


Fig.   7. 


Fig.   8. 


twisted  back  on  itself  for  one  turn,  so  that  the  end  will  not  project  beyond  the  diameter  of 
the  insulation.  It  will  be  found  that  when  the  terminal  cover  is  screwed  down  the  secondary 
wire  will  be  tightly  held.  These  terminals  should  be  screwed  down  with  the  fingers — do  not 
use  pliers.  The  wires  should  never  be  soldered  to  the  brass  posts. 


METHOD  OF  CONNECTING  HIGH  TENSION  WIRES  TO  DISTRIBUTOR 

Battery.  If  a  special  battery  is  used  for  ignition,  this  should  consist  of  either  a  six- 
volt  storage  battery  or  six  dry  cells,  connected  six  in  series.  If  dry  cells  are  used,  see  that  they 
are  insulated  from  each  other  and  from  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  battery  box  by  wood  or 
fiber  battens  or  partitions.  The  strawboard  covers  on  dry  cells  have  little,  if  any,  insulating 
value  when  damp.  See  that  cells  are  packed  so  that  the  connections  cannot  jar  loose. 


184  INFORMATION 

SETTING  AND  TIMING  THE  TYPE  "K-2"  UNISPARKEE 
(No  Spark  Control  Lever  Being  Used.) 

The  Type  "K-2"  Unisparker  should  be  installed  so  as  to  allow  a  small  amount  of  angular 
movement  for  the  initial  timing  adjustment.  In  other  words,  the  socket  with  a  clamp  will 
permit  the  Unisparker  to  be  turned  and  locked  rigidly  in  any  given  position.  t 

In  tuning  the  piston  in  No.  1  cylinder  should  be  raised  to  high  dead  center,  between 
compression  and  power  strokes;  then,  with  the  clamp  which  holds  the  Unisparker  loose,  the 
Unisparker  should  be  slowly  and  carefully  turned  backwards  or  counter  clockwise  (contrary) 
to  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  time  shaft,  until  a  click  is  heard.  This  click  happens  at  the 
exact  instant  of  the  spark.  At  this  point  clamp  the  Unisparker  tight,  being  careful  not  to 
change  its  position. 

Now  remove  the  distributor  cap,  which  fits  only  in  one  position,  and  note  the  position 
of  the  distributor  block  on  the  end  of  the  shaft.  The  terminal  to  which  it  points  is  connected 
to  No.  1  cylinder.  The  other  cylinders  in  their  proper  order  of  firing  are  connected  to  the 
other  terminals  in  turn,  keeping  in  mind  the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  timer  shaft. 

When  timed  in  this  manner  the  spark  occurs  exactly  on  "center"  when  the  engine  is 
turned  over  slowly.  At  cranking  speeds  the  governor  automatically  retards  the  spark  for 
safe  starting,  and  as  the  speed  increases  the  spark  is  automatically  advanced,  thus  requiring 
no  attention  on  the  part  of  the  driver. 

Note.  If  spark  lever  is  used  in  conjunction  with  the  Type  "K-2"  Unisparker,  proceed 
the  same  as  for  Type  "H,"  except  that  the  spark  control  levers  should  be  arranged  so  that 
the  Unisparker  moves  not  more  than  one-half  inch  from  the  full  retard  position  to  the  full 
advance. 

SETTING  AND  TIMING  THE  TYPE  "H"  UNISPARKER 

The  first  operation  in  timing  the  Type  "H"  Unisparker  is  to  crank  the  engine  until  the 
piston  of  No.  1  cylinder  is  on  high  dead  center  between  the  compression  and  power  strokes. 

The  Unisparker  is  then  placed  on  the  shaft,  the  advance  rod  from  the  steering  post  being 
connected  to  the  lug  on  the  side  of  the  Unisparker,  which  is  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  position  of  the  spark  advance  lever  on  the  steering  wheel  sector  should  be  within 
one-half  inch  of  full  retard,  and  the  connecting  levers  should  be  such  as  to  give  the  Unisparker 
a  movement  of  at  least  45  degrees  to  60  degrees  for  the  full  range  of  spark  advance. 

After  the  spark  lever  is  connected  up  and  the  Unisparker  is  in  position,  it  should  be  left 
loose  at  the  driving  gear,  and,  with  the  motor  on  dead  center  as  above  directed,  the  shaft  of 
the  Unisparker  should  then  be  turned  forward,  or  in  the  same  direction  as  that  in  which  the 
timer  shaft  normally  rotates,  until  a  click  is  heard,  at  which  point  it  should  be  set  by  tighten- 
ing the  driving  connection. 

The  Unisparker  being  properly  set,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  get  the  secondary  wires 
leading  to  the  right  plugs.  To  do  this,  remove  the  distributor  cap,  and  note  the  terminal  to 
which  the  distributor  block  points.  This  will  be  the  proper  terminal  for  No.  1  cylinder.  The 
other  terminals  will  then  be  wired  up  according  to  their  firing  order. 

Adjustments.  The  only  parts  of  the  Atwater  Kent  System  which  are  adjustable  are 
the  contact  points.  These  are  adjustable  only  for  natural  wear.  (The  initial  adjustment 
made  at  the  factory  should  be  good  for  several  thousand  miles  of  service.) 

Contact  Point.  The  normal  gap  between  the  contact  points  is  from  .010  inch  to  .012 
inch — never  closer. 

The  contact  points  are  made  of  purest  tungsten,  which  is  many  times  harder  than  plat- 
inum-iridium . 

When  contact  points  are  working  properly,  small  particles  of  tungsten  will  be  carried 
from  one  point  to  the  other,  sometimes  forming  a  roughness  and  a  dark  gray  color  on  their 
surfaces.  This  roughness  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  proper  working  of  the  points,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  rough  surfaces  fit  into  each  other  perfectly.  However,  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  take  up  the  distance  between  these  points,  due  to  natural  wear,  it  is  advisable 
to  remove  both  contact  screw  and  spring  contact  arm,  and  with  a  new  fine  file  dress  down  the 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  185 

high  spots.  This  makes  it  possible  to  obtain  a  more  accurate  adjustment  and  eliminates 
any  danger  of  high  points  on  either  contact  touching  each  other  when  the  system  is  at  rest. 
Please  bear  in  mind  that  these  contacts  are  very  hard  to  file,  and  that  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  only  a  very  small  amount  of  metal.  Please  also  remember  that  although  the  con- 
tact surfaces  may  be  very  rough,  they  are  probably  in  perfect  working  condition,  the  dark 
gray  appearance  being  the  natural  color  of  the  tungsten. 

Oiling.  The  other  parts  of  the  contact  maker — the  latch,  lifter,  lif ter-spring,  and  notched 
shaft — are  not  adjustable,  and  are  not  subject  to  wear  if  they  are  cleaned  and  oiled  at  intervals 
of  six  to  seven  weeks.  (Note  oiling  diagram,  Fig.  9.)  Take  care  to  avoid  getting  oil  on  the 
contact  points. 

Caution.  Do  not  think  that  these  parts  do  not  work  properly  because  you  cannot  see 
then-  movement,  which  is  far  too  quick  for  the  eye  to  follow.  The  contact  maker  of  the  Uni- 
sparker  may  be  likened  to  a  watch,  which,  because  of  the  small  size  and  extreme  accuracy  and 
hardness  of  its  moving  points,  is  subject  to  little  or  no  wear,  even  after  years  of  service.  Both 
the  latch  and  Lifter  are  of  glass-hard  steel,  and  move  only  a  short  distance  for  each  operation. 


OIL 
LIGHTLY 


SEE  THAT 
CONTACT-POINTS      , 
AMI  FREE  FROM  OIL 

Fig.  9.     Oiling  Diagram. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  they  be  altered  in  shape,  nor  should  the  tension  or  setting  of 
the  springs  be  changed.  These  are  set  right  at  the  factory,  and  are  the  result  of  years  of  pains- 
taking standardization. 

IGNITION  SYSTEM 

Testing.  If  the  engine  misses  without  regard  to  speed,  test  each  cylinder  separately 
by  short-circuiting  the  plug  with  a  screw  driver,  allowing  a  spark  to  jump.  If  all  cylinders 
produce  a  good,  regular  spark,  the  trouble  is  not  with  the  ignition  system. 

If  any  one  cylinder  sparks  regularly,  this  will  indicate  that  the  system  is  in  working 
order  so  far  as  the  Unisparker  and  coil  are  concerned,  and  the  trouble  is  probably  in  the  high- 
tension  wiring  between  the  distributor  and  plugs  or  in  the  plugs  themselves.  Examine  care- 
fully the  plugs  and  wiring.  Leaky  secondary  wiring  is  frequently  the  cause  of  missing  and 
back-firing. 

Frequently  when  high-tension  wires  are  run  from  the  distributor  to  the  spark  plugs 
through  metal  or  fiber  tubing,  trouble  is  experienced  with  missing  and  back-firing,  which  is 
due  to  induction  between  various  wires  in  the  tube.  This  trouble  is  especially  likely  to  hap- 
pen if  the  main  secondary  wire  from  the  coil  to  the  center  of  the  distributor  runs  through 
this  tube  with  the  spark  plug  wires. 

Wherever  possible,  the  distributor  wires  should  be  separated  by  at  least  W  of  space, 
and  should  be  supported  by  brackets  or  insulators,  rather  than  run  through  a  tube.  In  no 
case  should  the  main  distributor  wire  be  run  through  a  conduit  with  the  other  wires. 

If  irregular  sparking  is  noted  at  all  plugs,  examine  first  the  battery  and  connections  there- 
from. If  the  trouble  commences  suddenly,  it  is  probably  due  to  a  loose  connection  in  the  wir- 
ing. If  gradually,  the  batteries  may  be  weakening  or  the  contact  points  may  require  atten- 
tion. See  that  contacts  are  clean  and  bright,  and  also  that  the  moving  parts  are  not  gummed 
with  oil  nor  rusted. 


186 


INFORMATION 


Note.  Do  not  attempt  under  any  condition  to  alter  any  of  the  parts  of  this  system. 
Every  part  is  exactly  right  in  shape;  every  spring  has  the  proper  tension.  Do  not  let  the 
fact  that  the  contact  is  made  and  broken  so  quickly  that  the  movement  cannot  be  followed 
by  the  eye  cause  any  misapprehension.  Do  not  alter  or  tamper  with  any  of  the  parts. 


EATTEfW 


CONTACT  MAKER 

Fig.  10.     Principle  of  the  Atwater  Kent  Wiring  Diagram. 

in  case  of  undue  wear  or  breakage,  return  System  complete  to  us  for  examination  and 
repair,  for  which  a  nominal  charge  is  made.  When  returning  to  us,  advise  by  mail  when  and 
how  shipment  is  made,  also  mark  shipment  so  that  it  may  be  identified  after  wrapping  is  re- 
moved. 

THE  AUTO-LITE  SYSTEM  AS  USED  ON  OVERLAND  CARS 

The  Auto-lite  System  of  starting  and  lighting  is  composed  of  three  parts — the  motor, 
generator,  and  storage  battery.  Besides  these  three  parts,  an  ammeter,  control  switch,  and 
circuit  breaker  are  used.  The  motor  is  a  simple  series  wound  machine,  and  the  current  control 
is  embodied  within  it.  There  are  two  windings  around  the  pole  pieces.  One  is  called  a  shunt 
winding  of  a  great  many  turns,  and  the  other  may  be  called  a  reverse  series  winding,  which 
is  of  comparatively  few  turns.  Current  for  exciting  the  fields  flows  through  the  shunt  winding 
which  is  connected  in  shunt  or  across  the  armature.  The  current  generated  in  the  armature 
flows  out  to  the  system  through  the  reverse  series,  which  is  connected  in  series  with  the  ar- 
mature. The  current  that  flows  through  the  reverse  series  winding  flows  around  the  pole 
pieces  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  current  flowing  through  the  shunt  winding  to 
excite  the  fields.  The  current  flowing  through  the  reverse  series  produces  magnetism  opposite 
to  that  produced  by  the  current  flowing  through  the  shunt  fields,  and  produces  what  is  gen- 
erally known  as  a  bucking  effect.  As  the  speed  of  the  generator  increases  the  bucking  effect 
increases.  The  generator  begins  delivering  current  to  the  system  at  a  car  speed  of  about  1% 
miles  per  hour,  and  continues  increasing  in  amperage  until  a  speed  of  about  20  miles  per  hour 
is  reached.  At  this  time  the  generator  has  reached  its  maximum  and  is  delivering  to  the 
system  about  14  amperes.  At  speeds  above  20  miles  per  hour  the  reverse  series  winding  holds 
output  down,  and  very  little  increase  of  current,  if  any,  will  occur.  At  about  15  miles  per 
hour  the  generator  is  delivering  about  10  amperes. 

The  circuit  breaker  is  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  or  disconnecting  the  generator  to 
the  system.  It  is  automatic  and  is  controlled  by  the  voltage  of  the  generator.  The  control 
switch  is  located  on  the  toe  board,  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  motor  into  the 
system  of  cranking.  The  Ammeter  is  connected  in  the  charging  circuit,  and  will  show  if 
current  is  flowing  from  or  to  the  battery. 

Care  of  the  Generator.  The  silent  chain  which  drives  the  generator  should  have 
frequent  and  thorough  oiling.  Ordinary  lubricating  oil  will  do  for  this  purpose,  and  as  soon 
as  the  oil  has  penetrated  all  of  the  joints,  the  surplus  oil  should  be  wiped  off  with  a  cloth. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


187 


This  will  prevent  dust  and  dirt  from  adhering  to  the  silent  chain.  The  chain  should  be  in- 
spected occasionally  to  see  that  it  has  the  proper  adjustment.  The  chain  must  not  be  too 
tight,  but  enough  slack  so  no  strain  is  on  the  links  when  the  engine  is  running.  To  tighten 
or  loosen  the  chain,  loosen  the  two  screws  that  hold  the  generator  to  the  bracket.  The  ad- 
justing screws  will  be  found  on  the  side  next  to  the  engine.  After  the  generator  is  hi  the  proper 
place  and  its  hold-down  screws  are  tight,  be  sure  to  tighten  up  on  the  adjusting  screw. 

Should  the  battery  be  removed  from  the  car,  do  not  run  car  until  it  is  replaced,  unless  a 


t^"3-! 

r^ 

P  ?::" 

7 
l- 

j  —  v 
/—  v 

y> 

HORN 
IK 

HORN  B 

T^\ 

Fig.   11.     Auto-Lite  on  Overland  Cars. 


188 


INFORMATION 


piece  of  about  No.  14  bare  copper  wire  is  connected  from  the  generator  terminal  to  the  frame 
of  the  generator.  This  will  prevent  injury  to  the  generator  windings.  Be  sure  to  remove 
this  wire  when  the  storage  battery  is  put  back  in  the  car.  The  storage  battery  is  used  rated 
at  six  volts  and  80  ampere  hours.  The  care  of  this  battery  is  the  same  as  that  of  any  starting 
battery. 

The  wiring  diagram  for  this  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.    Figures  12,  13,  14  show  wiring 
diagrams  of  the  Auto-lite  System  as  applied  to  other  pleasure  cars. 


Fig.    12.       Auto-Lite  Standard  Two-Unit  Systems. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


189 


Fig.   13.     Auto-Lite  on  Monroe  Cars. 


190 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  14.     Auto-Lite  on  Chevrolet. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


191 


BOSCH  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  SYSTEMS 

The  Bosch  Starting  and  Lighting  System  is  composed  of  a  motor,  starting  switch,  gener- 
ator, switch  box  (switch  board),  and  storage  battery. 

The  Starting  Motor  is  of  the  series  wound  type,  and  is  constructed  to  operate  on  either 
6-  or  12-volt  battery.  Copper  gauze  brushes  are  used. 

The  construction  of  the  motor  is  such  that  the  armature  can  be  shifted  endwise  in  its 
bearings,  parallel  to  its  axis.  In  the  normal  or  non-operating  position,  the  armature  is  held 
out  of  its  electrical  center,  or,  in  other  words,  out  of  line  with  the  pole  shoes,  by  means  of  a 
spiral  spring  in  the  commutator  end  of  the  armature  shaft;  therefore  when  in  the  normal 
position,  the  pinion  on  the  driving  shaft  of  the  starting  motor  is  out  of  mesh  with  the  gear 
ring  on  the  flywheel  of  the  engine. 

The  motor  is  regularly  provided  with  three  terminals,  two  of  which  are  heavier  or  larger 
in  diameter  than  the  other.  The  two  heavier  terminals  are  for  the  main  circuit,  and  the  single 
small  terminal  is  for  the  shunt  circuit. 

The  Starting  Switch  is  operated  by  means  of  a  pedal,  which,  when  depressed,  causes 
current  to  flow  from  the  battery  to  the  motor  for  cranking  the  engine.  The  plate  which  carries 
the  terminals  of  the  switch  also  supports  the  metal  band  or  strap  termed  the  switch  "shunt." 
The  cable  terminals  are  secured  to  the  switch  by  means  of  a  lock  washer  and  nut. 

When  releasing  the  switch  pedal  the  foot  should  be  lifted  entirely  clear,  so  as  not  to  retard 
the  quick  action  of  the  spring.  If  for  any  reason  the  switch  is  operated  too  quickly,  there  will 


Fig.  16.     Bosch  Starter  and  Lighting  Systems. 


192  INFORMATION 

be  no  serious  consequence,  for  the  pinion  on  the  motor  shaft  will  not  engage  with  the  flywheel 
arid  the  armature  will  rotate  freely.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  allow  the  pedal  to  resume 
its  non-operating  position  so  the  starter  «an  be  operated. 

The  Generator  is  a  simple  shunt  wound  machine  of  water-proof  construction,  obtain- 
ing all  regulations  from  external  appliances.  The  regulator,  which  is  located  in  the  switch 
box,  is  so  constructed  that  the  voltage  remains  constant,  irrespective  of  changes  in  speed  or 
load,  no  matter  how  suddenly  they  may  be  made.  The  regulator  is  so  constructed  that  it 
will  maintain  a  fixed  voltage  while  carrying  the  entire  lamp  load  or  at  low  speeds,  and  will  not 
vary  when  a  change  is  made  either  in  speed  or  load.  The  generator  carries  the  entire  load, 
and  the  battery,  should  it  be  fully  charged,  simply  "floats"  on  the  line.  This  arrangement 
allows  of  the  battery  being  used  only  when  the  engine  is  at  rest.  The  battery  may  be  dis- 
connected from  the  system  and  no  damage  will  result,  as  the  regulator  will  prevent  the  voltage 
from  rising  to  a  pressure  which  will  cause  injury  to  the  system. 

The  Switch  Box  contains  the  voltage  regulating  devices  as  well  as  the  control  switches, 
which  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  the  generator  circuit  in  or  out.  The  meter  for  giving 
condition  indications  is  also  incorporated  in  the  switch  box,  as  are  the  switches  necessary  for 
controlling  the  different  generator  and  battery  combinations  as  well  as  lighting  combinations. 
On  the  underside  provisions  are  made  for  making  the  individual  circuit  connections.  It  is 
possible  by  means  of  the  switch  levers  to  run  with  or  without  the  battery,  with  or  without 
the  generator,  and  have  any  lights  burning  the  driver  may  wish;  any  position  of  the  switch 
'  can  be  retained  by  the  combination  locking  arrangement.  Figure  16  shows  the  system  as 
applied  to  the  Marmon  car. 

BIJUR  SYSTEM  FOR  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING 

This  system  consists  of  a  motor,  starting  switch,  and  a  generator.  The  motor  is  in  oper- 
ation only  when  the  starting  operation  is  taking  place.  The  generator  supplies  current  to  the 
system  at  car  speeds  of  about  10  miles  per  hour  or  over.  An  automatic  switch  at  the  gen- 
erator closes  the  circuit  between  the  generator  and  the  storage  battery  when  the  voltage  of 
the  generator  is  high  enough  to  charge  the  battery  and  opens  the  circuit  between  the  gener- 
ator and  the  battery  when  the  voltage  of  the  generator  falls  below  that  of  the  battery.  The 
output  of  the  generator  will  vary  all  the  way  from  4  to  25  amperes,  this  all  depending  upon 
the  state  of  charge  in  the  battery.  If  the  state  of  charge  is  low  the  charging  rate  may  reach 
from  15  to  25  amperes,  and  when  the  battery  is  in  a  changed  condition  the  charging^  rate  may 
drop  as  low  as  4  or  5  amperes.  Do  not  attempt  to  regulate  the  charging  rate  upon  finding  the 
charging  rate  low.  First  test  the  battery,  and  if  the  battery  is  found  to  be  charged,  that  is 
the  reason  for  the  charging  rate  being  low.  When  making  connections  at  the  generator  or  in 
the  generator  wire  to  the  storage  battery,  no  attention  need  be  paid  to  polarity.  Simply 
connect  one  wire  to  each  terminal.  If  the  wires  are  put  on  in  a  reversed  order  from  where 
they  were  when  taken  off,  the  polarity  of  the  generator  will  reverse  and  the  generator  will 
charge  the  battery.  Fig.  17  shows  a  general  wiring  diagram  of  the  system  where  ammeter 
is  used.  The  instruction  as  given  us  by  the  manufacturer  of  this  sytsem  in  regard  to  care, 
maintenance,  oiling,  and  how  to  locate  and  remedy  troubles  is  as  follows: 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE 

Regularly  every  month  the  disconnecting  plug  should  be  pushed  inwardly  to  unlock  it, 
and  turned  past  its  vertical  position  until  it  springs  back  and  locks. 

This  turning  of  the  disconnecting  plug  in  its  socket  should  not  be  done  after  the  car  has 
been  standing  for  a  prolonged  period  with  lights  in  use.  It  should  be  done  when  the  battery 
is  in  a  charged  condition. 

The  disconnecting  plug  is  the  brass  plug  containing  the  generator  wires,  and  which  fits 
into  the  extended  brass  receptacle  on  the  end  of  the  regulator  box  on  top  of  the  generator. 
This  plug  has  two  flat  parallel  faces. 

The  plug  should  never  rest  in  its  receptacle  so  that  these  flat  faces  stand  in  a  vertical 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


193 


position,  as  in  this  position  the  generator  is  disconnected,  but  should  be  pushed  in  and  turned 
in  either  direction  past  its  central  position  until  it  locks. 

To  remove  the  regulator  box  from  the  generator  disconnecting  plug  should  be  pushed 
inwardly  and  turned  to  its  central  position.  When  in  this  position  the  plug  may  be  with- 
drawn from  its  socket.  After  removing  the  plug,  the  knurled  screw  head  on  top  of  the  box 
should  be  loosened  and  the  box  lifted  from  the  generator  by  grasping  the  plug  receptacle  and 
the  box  at  the  same  time.  Do  not  hammer  the  receptacle  in  order  to  release  the  box. 

OILING 

Regularly  every  two  weeks,  or  every  five  hundred  miles,  two  or  three  drops  of  thin  neutral 
oil  should  be  put  in  each  of  the  two  oilers  of  the  motor  and  in  each  of  the  two  oilers  of  the 
generator.  Do  not  flood  the  bearings  with  oil. 

Regularly  every  two  weeks,  or  every  five  hundred  miles,  the  square  shaft  of  the  starting 
motor  should  be  oiled  with  about  ten  drops  of  cylinder  oil. 

Note.  In  cold  weather  only  light  oils  should  be  used  for  the  gas  motor,  as  heavy  oils 
become  stiff  and  make  cranking  difficult. 


Fig.   17.     Bijur  System. 


194 


I  N  F  O  R  M  A  T  I  0  N 


Fig.  18.     Bijur  System. 


A  U  T  0  M  O  P>  I  L  E    SYSTEMS 


195 


il 

P  * '» 


FMg.    19.     Bijur  System  on  Packard  Cars.     (Simplified  Circuit.) 


196 


INFORMATION 


Fig.    20.     Chalmeis  (Entz)  System. 

THE  CHALMERS  (ENTZ)  ELECTRIC  STARTING  SYSTEM 

The  parts  of  this  system  are  as  follows:  Motor-generator,  starting  switch,  and  18- volt 
storage  battery.  The  starting  switch  controls  both  starting  and  ignition.  The  motor-gener- 
ator has  two  windings  in  the  field  coils  and  one  winding  on  the  armature.  When  operating 
che  motor-generator  as  a  motor  the  series  and  shunt  fields  work  together  and  make  it  a  com- 
pound wound  machine,  thereby  increasing  the  cranking  power.  When  operating  as  a  gen- 
erator the  field  windings  operate  differentially,  the  series  winding  acting  as  a  reverse  series 
and  controlling  the  output  of  the  machine.  There  are  no  automatic  cut-outs  used,  as  the  switch 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  197 

for  starting  and  ignition  is  also  the  means  of  opening  and  closing  the  circuits  between  the 
generator  and  storage  battery.  Turning  the  starting  switch  on  the  "ON"  position  closes  the 
ignition  circuit  and  at  the  same  time  connects  the  motor  to  the  storage  battery  and  the  engine 
is  cranked.  When  the  engine  is  running  from  its  own  power  at  a  speed  equivalent  to  7  or  8 
miles  per  hour  the  motor-generator  is  automatically  converted  into  a  generator  and  charges 
the  battery.  For  all  ordinary  driving  the  starting  switch  should  be  left  in  the  "ON"  posi- 
tion. If  the  engine  is  running  below  speeds  of  7  or  8  miles  per  hour  the  switch  should  be  in 
the  neutral  position.  This  prevents  the  waste  of  current,  as  the  motor-generator  will  act  as 
a  motor  at  these  speeds.  At  all  times  when  the  speed  of  the  engine  is  above  8  miles  per  hour, 
be  sure  that  the  switch  is  in  the  "ON"  position.  Fig.  20  shows  the  system  as  applied  to  the 
Chalmers  Light  Six,  which  is  better  known  as  Model  26-B.  If  at  any  time  the  starting  system 
should  fail  or  the  generator  does  not  supply  current  to  the  system,  follow  the  instruction  as 
given  with  other  systems  in  regard  to  keeping  the  commutator  clean,  brushes  making  good 
contact,  wires  loose  or  terminals  corroded.  The  lamps  used  in  connection  with  this  system 
are  21 -volt.  As  a  dimmer  these  lamps  are  connected  in  series,  and  for  ordinary  driving  they 
are  connected  in  parallel.  This  is  done  by  the  operation  of  the  lighting  switch.  Atwater  Kent 
ignition  is  used.  For  information  on  the  ignition  system,  see  instruction  on  the  Atwater 
Kent  System. 

THE  DYNETO  SYSTEM 

This  system  consists  of  three  main  parts:  Motor-generator,  starting  switch,  and  storage 
battery.  The  motor-generator  is  wound  for  12  volts  and  combines  in  one  machine  means  for 
starting,  lighting,  and  battery  charging.  No  automatic  cut-out  or  regulator  is  used.  As  a 
generator  it  will  begin  charging  the  battery  at  1 , 100  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  generator. 
Charge  at  5-ampere  rate  at  1,400  R.  P.  M.,  and  10  amperes  at  1,700  R.  P.  M.  Note  that  this 
is  a  12-volt  system,  and  the  charging  rate  need  be  but  half  of  that  of  a  6-volt  system.  In  this 
system  there  is  but  one  machine  with  but  one  armature,  one  set  of  ball  bearings,  one  set  of 
brushes,  and  very  simple  wiring.  The  motor-generator  is  of  very  high  efficiency,  which  is 
permanently  connected  with  the  engine  by  means  of  a  silent  chain  with  a  reduction  of  2J/2  to 
3  to  1.  The  three  units  are  connected  together  by  very  simple  wiring,  consisting  of  two  wires 
from  motor-generator  to  the  switch,  one  wire  to  the  battery,  and  one  wire  through  the  switch 
to  the  battery. 

In  starting  the  switch  is  to  be  closed  and  left  so.  The  motor-generator  will  then  operate 
as  a  motor  and  spin  the  engine  at  from  125  to  200  R.  P.  M.,  depending  upon  the  engine  to 
which  it  is  connected.  After  the  engine  b  egins  to  run  under  its  own  power  the  motor-generator 
will  automatically  change  to  a  generator  and  charge  the  battery.  At  speeds  of  about  10  miles 
per  hour  the  motor-generator  operates  as  a  generator,  and  at  speeds  below  10  miles  per  hour 
it  operates  as  a  motor.  The  power  available  as  a  motor  increases  as  the  engine  speed  decreases, 
and  at  very  low  speeds  prevents  the  engine  from  stalling.  The  regulation  of  the  generator  is 
accomplished  by  the  differential  action  of  the  shunt  and  series  field  windings,  the  maximum 
current  being  fixed  to  suit  the  capacity  of  the  battery  used.  The  armature  coils  are  form  wound, 
and  are  so  designed  that  no  two  wires  cross  each  other,  thus  preventing  the  development  of 
short  circuits.  The  main  frame  is  made  of  pressed  steel  and  has  six  pole  pieces  bolted  to  it. 
The  field  coils  are  all  form  wound,  the  shunt  and  series  coils  being  separately  taped  and  in- 
sulated before  placing  in  the  machine. 

Starting  switch  has  three  positions — off,  start,  and  neutral.  The  switch  may  be  locked 
in  the  off  position  so  that  the  car  cannot  be  started,  even  by  hand,  as  ignition  is  also  controlled 
by  it.  The  neutral  position  is  for  long  drives  with  a  fully  charged  battery.  In  this  case,  while 
the  armature  will  run  just  the  same,  it  will  not  generate.  The  position  start  is  for  starting. 
This  position  is  also  for  running  when  lights  are  being  used  or  the  battery  is  charged.  The 
starting  switch  replaces  the  usual  ignition  switch,  as  ignition  is  also  controlled  by  it.  A  12- 
volt,  60-ampere  hour  battery  is  generally  used.  The  lamp  bulbs  for  head  lights  should  be  14 
volts,  side  lights  14  volts,  and  speedometer  and  tail  lights  when  in  series  7  volts.  Be  sure  that 
the  speedometer  and  tail  lights  are  of  the  same  voltage  and  candle  power  on  all  systems  where 
they  are  in  series  with  each  other.  No  fuses  are  used  in  the  main  circuits  of  the  system,  but 


INFORMATION 

are  generally  used  in  the  lighting  and  ignition  circuits.     See  Fig.  26,  which  gives  a  simple 
circuit  and  wiring  diagram  combined. 


Fig.   26.     Dyneto    System. 

TROUBLES,  AND  HOW  TO  OVERCOME  THEM 

If  starter  will  not  start  (crank  engine),  do  not  leave  switch  on  start  position.  Turn  on 
If  they  burn  bright,  watch  them  and  try  starting  again  with  the  lamps  on.  If  they 
do  not  drop  in  candle  power  it  is  quite  likely  that  there  is  an  open  circuit  in  the  starting  wires, 
starting  switch,  terminals,  or  brush  connection  to  the  commutator.  Be  sure  that  the  brushes 
are  not  worn  out,  are  free  in  the  brush  holders,  and  that  the  springs  are  in  a  condition  to  press 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  199 

them  firmly  against  the  commutator.  If,  with  switch  on  start,  lamps  drop  slightly  in  candle 
power  and  motor  fails  to  crank  the  engine,  the  trouble  may  be  due  to  loose  connections,  rough 
or  dirty  commutator,  brushes  worn  out,  or  not  fitted  to  the  commutator,  weak  brush  springs, 
grounded  or  defective  armature  or  field  windings  and  weak  battery.  If  lamps  burn  very  dim 
when  switch  is  turned  to  start,  look  at  the  battery,  as  it  may  be  discharged  or  nearly  so,  loose 
or  corroded  connections  at  the  battery  or  other  wires  in  the  circuits  may  be  loose.  If  starter 
cranks  engine  but  very  slowly,  look  for  high  resistance  in  cranking  circuit  due  to  wires  being 
too  small,  loose  terminals,  bad  soldered  joints,  poor  switch  contacts,  rough  commutator,  short 
brushes  without  sufficient  spring  tension,  and  weak  battery.  The  cause  for  the  battery  being 
weak  may  be  due  to  grounds,  unnecessary  use  of  the  lights,  or  from  cranking  the  engine  too 
long  at  a  time  when  it  fails  to  start  due  to  poor  ignition  or  gasoline.  Also  the  carburetor  may  be 
out  of  adjustment. 

If  the  generator  fails  to  generate,  the  trouble  will  probably  be  found  in  an  open  shunt 
field  circuit.  See  Fig.  26.  This  circuit  may  be  traced  as  follows:  From  negative  pole  of  bat- 
tery to  terminal  Xo.  1  through  shunt  field  in  generator  to  terminal  No.  3,  then  to  terminal 
on  starting  switch  marked  Sh  Fl,  through  switch  to  terminal  marked  Ser  Fl,  then  to  terminal 
No.  4,  and  to  positive  of  battery.  This  circuit  may  be  tested  out  independently  of  the  main 
circuits  by  removing  wire  from  terminal  No.  2  so  as  to  cut  out  the  armature  circuit,  being  sure 
that  the  switch  is  on  start.  If  the  circuit  through  shunt  field  is  all  right  a  bright  spark  will 
occur  when  wire  is  removed  from  terminal  No.  3.  If  no  spark  occurs,  look  over  all  wires  and 
connections  and  an  open  circuit  will  be  found.  To  test  shunt  field  alone,  remove  all  wires 
from  the  generator  and  test  from  terminal  No.  1  to  terminal  No.  3.  If  generator  does  not 
generate  enough  current,  connect  ammeter  in  charging  circuit.  To  connect  ammeter  remove 
wire  at  terminal  No.  1.  Attach  one  side  of  ammeter  to  terminal  No.  1,  and  the  wire  taken  off 
of  this  terminal  to  the  other  side  of  the  ammeter.  This  will  give  the  rate  the  battery  is  being 
charged.  Be  sure  that  all  lights  are  turned  off. 

Examine  battery  and  connections.  Be  sure  that  there  are  no  loose  connections  in  the 
circuits;  go  over  the  shunt  circuit  through  generator;  note  that  the  commutator  is  clean  and 
smooth  and  that  the  springs  keep  the  brushes  pressed  firmly  against  the  commutator.  Grounds 
and  short  circuits  often  occur  in  wires  not  being  protected,  then-  insulations  being  cut  or  oil- 
soaked.  These  grounds  and  short  circuits  are  often  found  in  lamps,  lamp  sockets,  and  their 
connections.  See  Fig.  26  for  complete  wiring  diagram. 

GRAY  AND  DAVIS  SYSTEMS  (TWO-UNIT  SYSTEM) 

The  Generator  has  two  principal  parts:  The  field,  in  which  magnetism  is  induced,  is 
stationary.  The  armaturg,  in  which  electrical  current  is  generated,  rotates  within  the  field. 
The  generator  has  the  characteristics  of  a  compound  wound  machine;  that  is,  the  field  strength, 
or  magnetism,  automatically  increases  as  additional  work  or  load  is  applied,  or  vice  versa. 
But  it  is  of  the  shunt  wound  type  and  is  thus  classed,  because  its  shunt  field  windings  are 
connected  in  shunt  with,  or  across,  the  armature.  Reference  to  Fig.  27  shows  the  shunt  field 
windings  in  parallel;  one  side  connected  to  the  positive  brush;  the  other  passes  through  the 
regulator  points  and  is  connected  to  the  negative  generator  brush. 

The  Regulator  Cut-Out  performs  two  duties:  One  to  regulate  the  generator  for  uniform 
output.  The  other  to  connect  the  generator  into  the  system  only  when  sufficient  current  is 
generated,  and  when  generator  slows  down,  when  current  is  insufficient  to  charge  the  battery, 
to  disconnect  generator  from  the  system  to  prevent  battery  from  discharging  back  through 
the  generator.  The  shunt  winding,  series  winding,  cut-out  points,  regulator  points,  and  field 
resistance  are  shown  in  Fig.  27.  The  shunt  winding  is  permanently  connected  across  the  gen- 
erator armature.  It  causes  the  cut-out  armature  to  be  attracted,  closing  the  cut-out  points. 
The  series  winding  when  the  cut-out  points  are  closed,  assists  the  shunt  winding  in  holding 
the  cut-out  points  firmly  together.  The  cut-out  points,  when  closed,  connect  the  generator 
into  the  system.  The  regulator  points,  when  closed,  short  circuit  or  shunt  the  field  resistance, 
and  when  drawn  apart,  insert  the  field  resistance  into  the  field  circuit.  The  field  resistance 
retards  the  flow  of  current  into  the  fields.  When  generator  is  at  rest  the  cut-out  points  are 


200  INFORMATION 

open  and  the  regulator  points  closed.  As  generator  first  speeds  up,  the  regulator  points  re- 
main closed.  Thus,  the  field  resistance  is  short-circuited,  permitting  the  generator  to  build 
up  under  full  field  strength.  When  the  proper  voltage  is  reached,  the  cut-out  points  close,  per- 
mitting current  to  flow  through  the  series  winding  to  the  system.  As  the  generator  speed  in- 
creases beyond  that  necessary  for  full  output,  the  pull  of  the  shunt  winding  attracts  the  reg- 
ulator armatures.  This  reduces  the  pressure  at  the  regulator  points  and  inserts  a  resistance 
into  the  field  circuits  which  prevents  further  increase  of  output.  The  varying  of  the  pressure 
at  the  points  which  allows  the  resistance  to  be  put  into  the  circuit  is  intermittent.  The  fre- 
quency is  in  proportion  to  the  speed  variation.  When  lamps  are  turned  on  the  frequency  at 
the  regulator  points  is  reduced  and  the  generator  output  is  increased,  giving  the  generator 
compound  wound  characteristics.  The  regulator  cut-out  terminals  are  marked  B,  L,  A,  F, 
and  Fi.  B  is  negative  ( — ).  B  is  the  end  of  the  regulator  cut-out  series  and  connects  to  the 
battery  through  the  indicator.  L  is  also  negative  ( — ).  L  is  connected  to  series  at  a  given 
distance  from  the  end  and  connects  to  the  lamps  through  the  lighting  switch.  The  positive 
brush  holder  of  the  generator  connects  to,  or  "grounds"  to  the  frame  of  the  generator.  There- 
fore generator  frame  is  positive  (+).  Connections  between  regular  cut-out  and  generator 
are  as  follows:  A  connects  to  generator  negative  brush.  F  connects  to  one  field  coil,  and  Fi 
connects  to  the  other  field  coil.  The  generator  must  be  driven  as  designated  by  letters  C.  C. 
W.  D.  E.  (counter  clockwise  driving  end),  or  C.  W.  D.  E.  (clockwise  driving  end).  The  gen- 
erator must  be  kept  clean  and  the  bearings  lubricated  regularly.  Lubricate  generator  once 
every  two  weeks  or  every  five  hundred  miles.  Be  sure  that  the  oilers  are  not  stopped  up. 
Do  not  assume  that  oil  has  reached  the  bearings,  but  be  certain.  Overflow  of  lubricant  at 
oiling  places  does  not  always  indicate  that  bearings  have  been  properly  lubricated.  Type 
"T"  generator  is  rated  at  6X  volts,  10  amperes,  1000  R.  P.  M.  Type  "S"  generator  is  rated 
at  6>4  volts,  10  amperes,  650  R.  P.  M.  This  means  that  the  generator  will  deliver  a  current 
of  10  amperes  and  6X  volts  pressure  when  armatures  are  rotated  at  1000  or  650  revolutions 
per  minute,  respectively. 

The  generator  output  will  vary  slightly  with  battery  condition.  When  battery  gravity 
is  low  the  output  will  be  higher.  When  battery  gravity  is  high  the  output  will  be  lower.  At 
speeds  of  10  to  12  miles  per  hour,  with  lights  off,  battery  receives  full  charging  rate,  but  as 
lights  are  turned  on,  current  flows  to  the  lamps,  and  charging  rate  is  reduced.  Owing  to  the 
compound  wound  characteristics  of  the  generator,  it  permits  the  battery  to  receive  a  low 
charge  when  all  lights  are  on. 

Generator  Fails  to  Generate.  This  is  shown  by  the  indicator,  which  will  not  indicate 
"Charge"  when  the  engine  is  running  at  high  speed,  but  indicates  discharge  when  lights  are 
turned  on.  To  prove  if  the  indications  of  the  generator  are  reliable,  turn  all  lights  on;  then, 
when  the  engine  is  running  at  a  speed  equivalent  to  10  miles  per  hour,  disconnect  wire  at 
terminal  "B"  on  regular  cut-out.  If  lights  go  out  it  proves  that  generator  or  regulator  cut-out 
is  at  fault.  Reconnect  wire  at  terminal  "B,"  then  remove  side  plates  from  generator  to  ex- 
amine brushes.  Slide  the  brushes  in  and  out  and  be  sure  that  they  slide  freely  in  the  brush 
holders,  make  good  contact  with  the  commutator,  and  that  the  wires  from  brush  holders  and 
fields  to  generator  terminals  are  firmly  connected.  The  commutator,  if  coated  or  dirty,  should 
be  cleaned  by  using  kerosene  and  a  piece  of  cheesecloth.  Use  kerosene  sparingly,  and  be  sure 
to  wipe  dry.  If  micas  are  high  they  should  be  grooved  out  below  the  surface  of  the  metal. 
See  that  the  screw  between  terminals  "L"  and  "B"  on  regulator  is  securely  fastened.  If,  after 
following  the  foregoing  instructions,  the  trouble  has  not  been  corrected,  connect  a  wire  at 
regulator  cut-out  from  terminal  "A"  to  terminal  "B"  when  engine  is  speeded  up  above  10 
miles  per  hour  and  all  lights  are  turned  off.  If  indicator  then  indicates  charge,  the  regulator 
cut-out  is  at  fault.  But  if  the  indicator  slows  neither  charge  nor  discharge,  the  brushes  are 
not  making  good  contact  to  the  commutator  or  there  is  an  open  in  the  generator  circuit  at 
some  point.  If  indicator  indicates  discharge,  reduce  the  engine  speed  to  8  or  9  miles  per  hour. 
Then  connect  another  wire  from  "F"  and  "Fi"  to  terminal  "A."  If  indicator  then  indicates 
charge,  the  regulator  is  at  fault;  but  if  indicator  still  indicates  discharge,  it  shows  that  the 
generator  field  circuit  is  open  or  armature  is  short-circuited. 


AUTO  MOBILE    SYSTEMS  201 

THE  STARTING  MOTOR 

The  starting  motor  has  two  principal  parts:  The  field,  which  is  stationary,  and  the  ar- 
mature, which  revolves  within  the  field.  The  starting  motor  cranks  the  engine  until  it  runs 
from  its  own  power.  It  is  the  link  between  the  battery  and  the  engine.  Electrically  the  start- 
ing motor  is  connected  to  the  battery  through  heavy  cables  and  the  starting  switch.  Mechan- 
ically it  is  connected  to  the  engine  through  a  gear  reduction  having  a  sliding  flywheel  engaging 
pinion  and  an  over-running  clutch.  The  sliding  engaging  pinion  and  starting  switch  are 
operated  by  the  same  operation  of  the  starting  pedal,  so  that  electrical  and  mechanical  con- 
nections and  disconnections  occur  at  the  same  time.  When  starting  pedal  is  pressed  to  the 
full  limit  the  electrical  energy  stored  in  the  battery  is  transmitted  to  the  motor,  causing  thfe 
armature  to  rotate.  This  mechanical  energy  is  transmitted  to  the  engine  through  the  gears 
and  over-running  clutch,  causing  the  engine  to  rotate. 

Pressing  the  starting  pedal  to  the  full  limit  of  its  travel  moves  the  sliding  pinion  forward 
and  also  closes  the  starting  switch.  If  the  sliding  pinion  is  in  a  meshing  position  it  slides  into 
mesh  with  the  fly-wheel  gear.  If  the  pinion  teeth,  instead  of  sliding  between,  should  strike 
the  ends  of  the  flywheel  teeth,  the  switch  and  rod  complete  then-  travel,  which  compresses 
the  shifter  fork  spring  and  closes  the  switch.  When  the  pinion  begins  to  turn,  the  compressed 
spring  throws  the  sliding  pinion  into  full  mesh  with  the  flywheel  gear  and  permits  starter  to 
crank  the  engine.  When  the  engine  picks  up  and  runs  from  its  own  power  the  roll  clutch 
prevents  the  engine  from  driving  the  starting  motor,  as  the  gears  are  in  mesh  until  starting 
pedal  is  released.  The  purpose  of  the  over-running  clutch  is  to  prevent  the  engine, -when 
cranked  by  the  starting  motor,  to  pick  up  without  driving  the  starting  motor,  which  is  tem- 
porarily connected  to  the  engine  when  starting  pedal  is  pressed.  When  the  engine  runs  faster 
than  when  revolved  by  the  starting  motor,  the  rolls  in  the  over-running  clutch  are  released 
from  wedge-shaped  angles,  permitting  over-running  action  of  clutch,  thus  preventing  any 
dragging  effect  on  the  motor. 

Lubricate  starting  motor  regularly  every  two  weeks  with  good  oil. 

At  all  oiling  places  apply  eight  or  ten  drops  each  time  and  return  oiler  covers  to  their 
closed  positions.  Sliding  surfaces  and  rods  must  be  oiled  frequently.  The  gear  case  should 
receive  one  tablespoonful  of  heavy  motor  oil  every  three  months  and  return  oil  plug  to  oil 
hole.  If  starting  motor  cranks  the  engine  when  starting  pedal  is  pressed  to  the  full  limit  of 
its  stroke  and  engine  does  not  start  (run  from  its  own  power)  after  10  or  15  seconds,  release 
the  pedal  and  determine  reason  for  failure.  Any  of  the  following  may  be  the  cause:  Fuel 
supply  exhausted  or  turned  off;  ignition  switch  not  turned  on;  ignition  wires  not  firmly  con- 
nected; spark  plugs  duty  or  defective;  cylinders  need  priming;  cylinders  flooded  from  too  much 
priming;  carburetor  out  of  adjustment,  or  the  fuel  supply  may  be  of  poor  grade. 

If  pressing  the  starting  pedal  to  the  full  limit  of  its  stroke  fails  to  rotate  the  motor  and 
crank  the  engine,  release  the  pedal  at  once.  The  battery  may  be  weak  or  discharged,  battery 
cables  may  not  be  in  firm  contact  with  the  battery,  starting  switch  or  motor;  starting  switch 
not  making  good  contact,  engine  may  be  very  stiff  or  stuck  in  bearings,  or  motor  brushes 
may  not  be  making  good  contact  with  the  commutator. 

If  starting  motor  rotates  and  the  engine  fails  to  spin,  any  of  the  following  may  be  the 
cause:  If  same  is  accompanied  by  little  noise  the  trouble  is  likely  in  roller  clutch,  which  does 
not  grip  properly.  Sliding  surface  of  shaft  may  be  dry  or  injured,  preventing  flywheel  pinion 
from  sliding  easily  into  mesh  with  the  flywheel  gear.  If  accompanied  by  much  noise,  the  trouble 
is  most  likely  with  sliding  pinion,  which  fails  to  mesh  with  the  flywheel.  In  this  case  a  heavier 
shifter  spring  should  be  used. 

Lighting  Switch.  The  fused  lighting  or  junction  switch  serves  the  purpose  of  a  com- 
mon center  for  lighting,  ignition,  and  horn  circuits.  It  controls  head,  side,  and  rear  lamps 
from  one  base  and  centralizes  all  fuses  and  connections  in  an  accessible  position.  When 
dimmer  bulbs  are  used  in  head  lights  instead  of  side  lights,  these  wires  are  connected  to  the 
side-light  connections  on  the  switch.  The  fuses  mounted  on  rear  of  lighting  switch  are  in  the 
lighting,  ignition,  and  horn  circuits.  Always  use  fuses  of  same  carrying  capacity  as  taken 
out  or  replaced. 


202  INFORMATION 

Obtaining  Service  When  Battery  or  Generator  Is  Out  of  Service.  When  emer- 
gencies require  temporary  corrections  of  the  trouble,  proceed  as  follows:  If  battery  is  de- 
fective and  is  to  be  removed,  disconnect  the  two  wires  to  each  battery  terminal  and  wrap  the 
ends  with  insulating  tape.  All  lamps  should  be  turned  on  to  prevent  excessive  voltage  at  the 
lamps.  Generator  will  furnish  sufficient  current  to  the  lamps  when  the  engine  is  running 
above  ten  miles  per  hour.  If  the  generator  is  at  fault  and  must  be  removed  from  the  car, 
disconnect  wires  from  terminals  B  and  L  on  regulator  and  connect  these  two  wire  ends  firmly 
together,  being  sure  to  wrap  with  friction  tape.  This  will  complete  the  battery  circuit  to  the 
lamps.  If  the  battery  should  be  found  discharged  and  the  generator  is  out  of  service,  it  should 
be  charged  from  an  outside  source  at  once. 

The  Indicator.  The  indicator  is  a  current  indicating  device.  It  tells  if  the  system  is 
working  right.  It  indicates  charge  when  current  is  flowing  to  the  battery,  and  discharge  when 
current  is  flowing  from  the  battery.  When  it  indicates  neutral  no  current  is  flowing  to  or  from 
the  battery.  If  it  indicates  discharge  when  lights  are  not  turned  on  with  engine  standing 
still,  it  indicates  that  there  is  a  ground  or  short  circuit  in  the  system.  If  it  indicates  neutral 
when  generator  should  be  charging  the  battery,  it  shows  that  the  charging  circuit  is  open  or 
the  generator  is  at  fault.  The  indicator  is  not  free  from  error.  The  pointer  may  become 
bent  as  a  result  of  short  circuits.  To  prove  if  in  error,  disconnect  wires  from  indicator  terminals 
or  disconnect  wires  from  negative  terminal  at  the  battery.  The  difference  between  neutral 
(zero)  and  where  pointer  stopped  is  the  variation  to  be  allowed  whenever  talcing  the  indicator 
readings.  If  indicator  does  not  indicate  discharge  when  the  lights  are  turned  on  and  the 
engine  is  at  rest,  the  indicator  is  at  fault.  If  indicator  shows  discharge  when  generator  should 
be  charging  the  battery,  and  shows  charge  when  the  engine  is  at  rest  with  lights  turned  on, 
the  wires  to  the  indicator  terminals  are  reversed.  If  indicator  hand  swings  intermittently 
from  charge  to  neutral  when  engine  is  running  above  10  miles  per  hour,  any  of  the  following 
may  be  the  cause:  Screw  on  regulator  cut-out  between  terminals  B  and  L  not  making  good 
connection  from  regulator  to  ground;  loose  wire  in  the  charging  circuit;  poor  contact  through 
brushes  to  the  commutator;  high  micas  in  commutator  or  loose  wires  at  battery.  An  ammeter 
is  used  on  certain  makes  of  cars  instead  of  the  indicator.  Its  charge  and  discharge  scale  is 
graduated.  Otherwise  it  is  similar  to  the  indicator  and  performs  the  same  function.  If  a 
car  is  equipped  with  an  ammeter  instead  of  an  indicator,  substitute  the  word  ammeter  for 
indicator  where  the  latter  appears  in  these  pages. 

The  units  of  this  system  should  be  connected  with  wire  or  cable  of  the  following  sizes: 
Generator  wires  to  battery  and  lighting  switch  should  be  No.  10  B  &  S  gauge.  Wires  from 
lighting  switch  to  head  lights,  No.  12  B  &  S  gauge.  Cable  from  battery  to  starting  motor 
and  starting  switch,  No.  1  B  &  S  gauge.  All  other  wires,  No.  14  B  &  S  gauge.  In  replacing 
defective  wires  never  use  wires  smaller  than  given  above.  Wires  or  terminals  when  fastened 
under  a  screw  or  nut  must  be  provided  with  a  lock  washer  to  prevent  loosening,  due  to  vibra- 
tion. Use  a  plain  brass  washer  between  lock  washer  and  terminal  wire.  In  order  that  wiring 
troubles  may  be  quickly  corrected,  it  is  important  to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  a  system, 
which  can  be  gained  by  studying  the  wiring  diagrams.  Figs.  27  and  28  are  very  similar  to 
each  other,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  starting  motor  circuit.  On  some  cars  the  system 
is  grounded  at  the  motor  and  on  others  at  the  starting  switch.  The  system  on  the  Peerless, 
Chandler,  Stearns,  Winton,  Metz,  Velie,  Crow,  Imperial,  Jones,  Elkhart,  Partin,  Palmer, 
Enger,  and  Meteor  is  grounded  at  motor.  On  Chalmers,  Paige,  and  Maxwell  the  system  is 
grounded  at  the  starting  switch. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


203 


STARTING    MOTOR, 


Fig.   27.     Gray  &  Davis  Two-Unit  System  (Grounded  Motor). 


204 


es       D  D 

TL/C*/TJ>«TC*T 


/f)re<;«.A7vff  <£.  Cirrvr 


W"vo//YG- M  i — WWWVVV— 


i 


GR. 


Fig.  28.     Gray  &  Davis  Two-Unit  System  (Grounded  Switch). 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


205 


*D  IKNf 


mtHING 


nKULKnn  cvrwr 

MAIN  UHt  FVU 


Fig.  29.     Gray  &  Davis  Single  Unit  System. 


206 


THE  NORTH-EAST  SYSTEM 


The  single  unit  North-East  Starter-Generator  is  connected  by  a  silent  chain  drive.  The 
complete  system  consists  of  this  starter-generator,  the  starter  switch,  the  12-volt  storage 
battery  and  current  indicator.  The  starter-generator  is  connected  at  all  times  to  the  engine 
by  means  of  a  sprocket  keyed  on  the  front  end  of  the  crank  shaft,  another  sprocket  on  the 
armature  shaft  of  the  starter-generator,  and  a  silent  chain  running  over  both  of  them.  The 
ratio  of  armature  shaft  to  crank  shaft  revolutions  is  3  to  1. 

The  negative  terminal  of  the  storage  battery  is  connected  direct  to  the  starter-generator 
and  the  positive  terminal  of  the  battery  is  connected  to  the  current  indicator,  and  from  this 
indicator  to  the  starter-generator.  The  two  lower  wires  on  the  starter-generator  connect  it 
directly  with  the  switch. 

STARTING 

After  the  ignition  switch  has  been  turned  on,  pressing  down  the  starter  switch  pedal 
will  crank  the  engine.  This  operation  closes  the  circuit  between  the  battery  and  the  starter- 
generator  and  causes  the  latter  to  act  as  a  motor,  turning  over  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engine 
by  means  of  the  silent  chain  drive.  As  soon  as  the  engine  begins  to  run  under  its  own  power 
the  starter  switch  should  be  released,  thus  breaking  the  circuit  between  the  battery  and  the 
starter-generator. 

REGULATION 

After  the  car  has  attained  a  speed  of  10  to  12  miles  an  hour  an  automatic  cut-out,  built 
integral  with  the  starter-generator,  closes  the  generating  circuit  between  the  starter-generator 
and  the  battery,  thus  allowing  a  charging  current  to  be  conducted  from  the  starter-generator 
to  the  battery.  When  the  car  speed  falls  below  10  to  12  miles  an  hour,  this  automatic  cut- 
out opens  the  generating  circuit  and  thus  prevents  the  battery  from  discharging  through  the 
starter-generator,  except  when  the  starter  switch  is  pressed  down  for  starting  the  engine. 
To  prevent  overcharging  the  battery  the  windings  of  the  shunt  and  series  fields  are  differ- 
entially compounded  when  charging,  and  in  addition  there  is  built  integral  with  the  starter 
a  regulating  device  which  inserts  sufficient  resistance  into  the  shunt  field  winding  so  as  to 
prevent  the  generator  current  from  ever  exceeding  a  certain  fixed  rate  at  which  the  battery 
can  be  charged  indefinitely  without  danger  of  overcharging,  regardless  of  what  speed  the 
car  may  attain. 

The  starter-generator  is  of  the  12-volt  single  unit  type,  one  armature  and  one  set  of  field 
windings,  acting  both  as  a  motor  and  a  generator.  Both  the  cut-out  and  regulating 
devices  are  contained  in  the  sealed  compartment  directly  beneath  the  brush  compartment. 

If  for  any  reason  the  battery  be  disconnected  from  the  circuit,  the  starter-generator 
should  not  be  run  by  the  engine  unless  the  small  fuse,  which  is  located  directly  above  the 
brushes,  is  removed.  Otherwise,  this  fuse  will  burn  out  and  open  up  the  shunt  field  winding 
automatically,  thus  protecting  this  winding  from  the  excessive  internal  current  generated 
by  the  starter-generator  when  the  battery  is  disconnected.  As  soon  as  the  battery  is  replaced 
the  fuse  should  be  reinserted  in  its  clips,  as  otherwise  no  current  will  be  generated  to  charge 
the  battery.  The  burning  out  of  this  fuse  can  be  detected  when  the  car  is  running  at  a  speed 
of  10  to  12  miles  an  hour  or  greater  by  the  failure  of  the  current  indicator  to  show  "Charge," 
providing,  of  course,  that  all  of  the  wiring  connections  are  tight  and  there  are  no  short  cir- 
cuits or  grounds.  Even  if  this  fuse  has  been  burnt  out  the  engine  can  still  be  started,  pro- 
viding that  the  battery  has  not  been  discharged  too  much,  as  the  series  field  circuit,  which 
does  most  of  the  work  when  the  starter-generator  is  used  as  a  motor,  has  not  been  broken. 

STORAGE  BATTERY 

The  battery  is  of  the  6-cell,  12-volt  type.  It  is  located  under  the  driver's  seat,  at  the 
left  side.  Besides  the  two  wires  leading  from  it  to  the  starting  system,  a  ground  wire  is  con- 
nected to  the  frame  to  complete  the  single  wire  or  grounded  lighting  system;  the  battery 
thus  furnishing  current  both  for  lighting  and  starting  the  car. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


207 


nS 

w 


6* 

£ 


There  are  two  head  lights,  a  dash  light,  and  a  tail  light.     The  lamp  sizes  are. 

Head  lights 15  candle  power — 14  volts 

Tail  light 2  candle  power — 16  volts 

Dash  light 2  candle  power — 16  volts 

Both  headlights  are  connected  to  one  terminal  of  the  lighting  switch  by  separate  wires, 
so  that  if  one  wire  should  be  short-circuited  the  other  light  would  still  burn.  The  tail  light 
and  dash  light  have  separate  wires  leading  to  another  terminal  at  the  back  of  the  switch. 
The  lighting  switch  has  three  positions,  "Off,"  "Dim,"  and  "On."  In  the  "Dim"  position 
the  tail  light,  dash  light,  and  head  lights  connected  to  the  dimmer  are  turned  on.  In  the 
"On"  position  the  tail  light,  dash  light,  and  head  lights  bright  are  turned  on.  All  of  the  lights 
are  connected  in  parallel  so  that  the  burning  out  of  any  one  of  them  will  not  affect  the  others. 


208  INFORMATION 

At  the  back  of  the  ignition  and  lighting  switch  are  five  terminal  connections.  Starting  at  the 
top  of  the  switch  and  moving  in  a  clockwise  direction,  the  terminals  are  for  the  following 
wires:  Magneto  to  switch  wire,  current  indicator  to  switch  wire,  tail  light  wire  and  dash 
light  wire,  two  head  light  wires,  and  the  switch  ground  wire.  To  the  back  of  this  switch  is 
connected  a  dimmer  resistance  coil  through  which  the  current  flows  when  the  lighting  switch 
handle  is  turned  to  the  "Dim"  position. 

CURRENT  INDICATOR 

The  current  indicator  is  located  on  the  left  side  of  the  instrument  board  and  is  inserted 
along  the  line  of  the  wire  leading  to  the  starter-generator  from  the  positive  terminal  of  the  bat- 
tery. To  one  of  the  current  indicator  terminals  are  connected  the  wires  which  conduct  the 
current  to  the  lighting  switch  and  the  horn.  This  indicator  not  only  registers  the  charge 
and  discharge  of  the  battery,  due  to  starter-generator  action,  but  also  registers  discharge 
when  the  battery  is  supplying  current  for  the  lamps;  when  the  generator  is  supplying  current 
to  the  battery,  the  indicator  will  show  "Charge"  even  when  all  the  lamps  are  burning.  "Dis- 
charge" will  appear  on  the  indicator  when  the  starter-generator  is  used  for  cranking  the 
engine,  or  when  the  lights  are  being  used  while  the  engine  is  not  running  above  a  speed  cor- 
responding to  a  car  speed  of  10  or  12  miles  per  hour.  If  at  any  time  the  current  indicator 
fails  to  register  properly,  inspect  its  terminal  posts  and  see  that  the  wires  leading  to  it  are 
tightly  attached.  Also  see  that  there  is  no  short  circuit  in  the  wiring  system.  The  indication 
of  "Discharge"  when  "Charge"  should  be  indicated  is  almost  a  sure  sign  that  there  is  a  short 
circuit  in  the  wiring  system,  unless  the  wires  connected  to  this  current  indicator  have  been 
connected  up  in  reverse  direction  to  the  actual  current  flow.  If  no  short  circuit  can  be  found 
in  the  wiring,  remove  the  current  indicator  and  inspect  it  for  an  internal  short  circui4 

ELECTRIC  HORN  AND  BUTTON 

The  electric  vibrator  horn  is  located  under  the  hood  and  attached  to  the  cowl  dash. 
Current  is  conducted  to  it  by  a  wire  attached  to  one  of  the  binding  posts  of  the  current  indi- 
cator, leading  through  the  horn  button  on  the  left  front  door  to  the  horn.  A  single  wire  is 
employed  and  the  horn  is  grounded.  The  horn  button  is  of  the  all-way  type  and  can  be 
operated  by  the  driver's  left  knee. 

REMY  STARTING-LIGHTING-IGNITION 

Two  Units  Six- Volt  System 

IGNITION-GENERATOR 

The  Ignition-Generator  is  a  low  speed,  six-volt  Generator  of  the  four  pole,  shunt  wound 
type.  It  starts  charging  the  battery  at  a  very  low  speed  and  its  output  is  sufficient  to  keep 
the  battery  fully  charged  under  starting,  lighting,  and  ignition  loads.  The  control  of  this 
output  is  automatically  obtained  by  means  of  a  regulator  with  vibrating  contacts  which 
intermittently  throws  a  high  resistance  in  series  with  the  generator  field. 

A  special  copper-carbon  composition  is  used  for  the  brushes  and  these  are  mounted 
upon  arms  pivoted  to  the  rocker  ring.  The  position  of  the  rocker  ring  should  never  be  changed, 
as  this  is  determined  upon  and  the  ring  accurately  set  at  the  factory. 

The  ignition  distributor,  which  embodies  both  the  distributor  and  the  circuit  breaker, 
is  simple  in^design  and  is  readily  accessible  for  inspection  at  any  time.  In  addition  to  its 
simplicity,  the  strength  and  durability  of  the  unit  are  emphasized  by  the  very  small  number 
of  moving  parts,  the  large  size  bearing  for  the  rotating  shaft,  the  constant  lubrication  of  this 
bearing  by  an  oiler,  the  extra  large  contact  points,  and  the  grade  of  material  used. 

The  distributor  is  of  the  most  reliable  form,  the  high  tension  current  being  distributed 
to  the  spark  plug  cables  by  a  segment  which  revolves  close  to  but  does  not  touch  the  pins  in 
the  distributor  head. 

This  ignition  distributor  and  coil  produce  a  spark  which  is  of  practically  constant  in- 
tensity, regardless  of  engine  speed,  which  gives  ideal  low-speed  operation,  the  very  best  of 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  209 

engine  acceleration,  and  which  reduces  the  necessity  of  carburetor  adjustment  to  a  minimum. 
Furthermore,  as  the  spark  is  synchronous  throughout  the  entire  range  of  speed  of  the  engine 
and  as  the  sparks  delivered  to  each  cylinder  are  equal  in  intensity,  it  tends  to  develop  at  all 
speeds  the  maximum  horsepower  of  which  the  engine  is  capable. 

RELAY-REGULATOR 

It  is  necessary  to  have  some  device  to  connect  the  generator  to  the  battery  while  the 
engine  is  running,  and  to  disconnect  the  battery  when  the  engine  comes  to  rest.  If  this  con- 
nection is  not  made  when  the  engine  is  running,  the  generator  output  will  rise  to  a  high  value 
and  the  generator  protective  fuse,  located  on  the  relay-regulator  base,  will  be  burnt  out, 
thereby  rendering  the  generator  inoperative. 

If  the  generator  is  not  disconnected  from  the  battery  when  the  engine  comes  to  rest, 
the  battery  will  discharge  itself  through  the  generator  windings.  A  simple  electrical  switch 
which  is  mounted  beside  the  regulator  on  a  bakelite  base  automatically  performs  this  opera- 
tion. It  is  known  as  "relay"  and  consists  of  an  arm  mounted  upon  pivots  and  iridium- 
platinum  contact  points. 

When  the  engine  and  consequently  the  generator  is  at  rest  or  running  at  a  speed  below 
that  necessary  to  generate  -voltage  equal  to  the  battery  voltage,  a  spring  holds  the  contact 
points  apart.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  voltage  of  the  generator  reaches  the  value  of  the 
battery  voltage,  the  current  flowing  through  the  shunt  coil  of  the  electro-magnet  energizes 
this  magnet  to  such  an  extent  that  it  pulls  the  arm  down,  thus  bringing  the  contact  points 
together  and  connecting  the  generator  to  the  battery. 

Up  to  this  point  all  current  used  is  supplied  by  the  battery.  When  the  relay  points 
close  the  generator  starts  delivering  current  into  the  line  and  supplies  part  of  the  current 
used  for  lighting  and  ignition.  As.  the  engine  speed  rises,  the  output  of  the  generator  builds 
up  very  quickly,  so  that  at  very  low  speed  the  generator  supplies  all  of  the  current  used  for 
lighting  and  ignition.  At  any  higher  speed  than  this,  the  current  delivered  by  the  generator 
is  in  excess  of  that  necessary  for  lighting  and  ignition,  and  this  excess  is  stored  in  the  battery. 

The  reky  contact  points  are  held  together  as  long  as  the  voltage  of  the  generator  is  in 
excess  of  the  battery  voltage,  but  as  soon  as  the  generator  voltage  drops  below  that  of  the 
battery  the  spring  forces  the  contact  points  apart,  thus  disconnecting  the  generator  from  the 
battery. 

Two  different  regulators  are  employed,  one  having  but  one  set  of  contact  points  and  the 
other  having  two  sets,  one  set  being  mounted  upon  springs.  Then-  operation,  however,  is  the 
same,  the  output  of  the  generator  being  controlled  in  the  same  manner  in  each  case. 

The  correct  maximum  output  for  the  generator  is  determined  by  the  tension  of  the  spring 
under  the  regulator  arm  adjusted  so  that  when  the  generator  is  running  at  a  speed  lower 
than  that  necessary  to  generate  this  maximum  output,  the  spring  holds  the  contact  points 
together.  The  current  supplied  to  the  generator  field  passes  directly  through  these  points. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  speed  of  the  generator  tends  to  cause  its  output  to  rise  above  this 
predetermined  maximum,  the  current  flowing  through  the  coil  on  the  electro-magnet  ener- 
gizes this  magnet  to  such  an  extent  that  it  pulls  the  arm  down.  This  pulls  the  contact  points 
apart,  forcing  the  field  current,  which  heretofore  had  been  passing  through  them,  to  pass 
through  the  resistance  unit.  This  resistance  decreases  the  field  current,  which  in  turn  de- 
creases the  output  of  the  generator.  Further,'  as  the  entire  output  of  the  generator  passes 
through  the  coil  on  the  regulator  electro-magnet,  the  energizing  effect  of  this  electro-magnet 
coil  is  reduced,  so  that  the  spring  forces  the  contact  points  together  again,  thereby  cutting 
the  resistance  out  of  the  field  circuit.  With  a  normal  field  again,  the  generator  output  immedi- 
ately starts  to  build  up  and  the  operation  just  described  is  repeated.  A  continuous  repe- 
tition of  this  operation  sends  a  pulsating  current  to  the  generator  field  and  holds  the  output 
at  a  practically  constant  value. 

For  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  generator,  a  readily  accessible  fuse  is  fitted  to  the  relay 
regulator  base.  If  the  battery  should  become  disconnected,  either  through  accident  or  neglect, 
this  fuse  will  burn  out,  rendering  the  generator  inoperative  and  damage  proof, 


210  INFORMATION 

IGNITION  COIL 

The  coil  supplied  with  this  system  has  been  designed  and  so  developed  and  proportioned 
that  an  exceptionally  efficient  spark  is  produced  at  all  speeds.  It  possesses  the  further  distinct 
advantage  of  operating  satisfactorily  on  as  low  as  2^2  volts  should  the  voltage  of  the  battery 
ever  fall  that  low  due  to  leakage  of  current,  indiscriminate  use  of  starting  motor,  or  lights,  or 
to  other  causes.  The  metal  base  of  the  coil  makes  an  electrical  connection  with  the  bracket 
upon  which  the  coil  is  mounted  for  one  side  of  the  secondary  or  high  tension  winding  and  the 
condenser.  It  is  very  important,  therefore,  that  the  coil  be  fastened  down  securely  to  this 
bracket  at  all  times. 

STARTING  MOTOR 

The  starting  motor  is  a  four  pole,  series  wound  motor  and  is  very  sturdy  and  compact 
in  construction.  While  developing  ample  power  to  spin  the  engine  at  a  high  rate  of  speed, 
it  has  been  so  developed  that  the  current  consumed  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum  com- 
mensurate with  the  power  required. 

The  commutator  and  brushes  of  this  motor  are  designed  to  carry  very  heavy  current 
without  injury. 

The  position  of  the  rocker  ring  upon  which  the  brushes  are  mounted  should  never  be 
changed,  as  this  is  determined  upon  and  the  ring  accurately  set  at  the  factory. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF 
IGNITION-GENERATOR 

In  order  to  procure  the  best  results  from  any  mechanical  device  it  is  important  that  it 
be  properly  installed  and  that  it  be  operated  and  cared  for  with  consideration.  This  ignition- 
generator  is  sturdy  in  construction  and  efficient  electrically,  yet  it  is  essential  that  it  be  prop- 
erly cared  for  in  order  that  perfect  results  may  be  obtained. 

Anpiler  is  provided  for  oiling  the  bearings  on  each  end  of  the  ignition-generator.  Oiling 
should  be  in  proportion  to  conditions  of  usage,  care  being  taken  not  to  flood  the  generator 
with  oil.  Under  normal  conditions  the  bearings  should  be  given  5  or  6  drops  of  oil  every 
1,000  miles.  Do  not  oil  the  commutator. 

The  grease  cup  directly  underneath  the  distributor  head  should  be  kept  full  of  a  medium 
cup  grease.  The  cap  should  be  screwed  down  2  or  3  turns  occasionally  in  order  to  force  the 
grease  into  the  distributor  shaft  bearing.  In  case  the  cup  should  be  supplied  with  a  wick 
use  pure  vaseline  instead  of  cup  grease. 

COMMUTATOR  AND  BRUSHES 

As  a  matter  of  precaution,  we  advise  that  an  inspection  of  the  commutator  and  brushes 
be  made  occasionally.  Under  average  running  conditions  an  inspection  should  be  made  about 
twice  during  a  season.  This  may  easily  be  accomplished  by  removing  the  band  around  the 
commutator  end  head. 

The  surface  of  the  commutator  should  be  clean  and  bright.  If  it  appears  rough  and 
blackened  the  armature  should  be  rotated  slowly  and  the  surface  smoothed  down  with  a  piece 
of  fine  (00)  sand  paper  (preferably  worn  or  used  paper).  Never  use  emery  cloth  for  this 
purpose.  After  cleaning  commutator  carefully  remove  all  sediment  from  between  the  com- 
mutator bars  and  from  the  generator  body.  The  brushes  should  make  perfect  contact  with 
the  commutator  and  should  swing  freely  upon  their  pivots. 

The  brushes  are  of  a  copper-carbon  composition  and  under  average  condition  will  last 
indefinitely.  If  replacement  should  be  necessary  from  any  cause,  do  not  use  carbon  substi- 
tutes, but  obtain  the  special  brushes  furnished  by  the  Remy  Factory,  Branch  Houses,  Service 
Stations,  or  Parts  Stations. 

IGNITION 

The  circuit-breaker  points  should  be  inspected  occasionally  by  removing  the  distributor 
head.  They  should  make  good  contact  at  all  times  and  should  have  a  smooth,  clean  surface. 


AUTO  MOBILE    SYSTEMS  211 

If  found  to  be  rough  or  worn  unevenly,  they  should  be  smoothed  up  with  a  very  fine  file,  or 
preferably  by  drawing  between  them  a  piece  of  fine  (00)  sandpaper. 

The  contact  screw  should  be  adjusted  so  that  the  maximum  opening  of  the  points  is 
.020  or  .025  inches,  or  the  thickness  of  the  piece  riveted  upon  the  side  of  the  small  wrench 
furnished  with  the  system.  The  rebound  spring  should  be  at  least  .020  of  an  inch  from  the 
breaker  arm  when  the  points  are  at  the  maximum  opening. 

We  recommend  the  use  of  spark  plugs  which  permit  of  their  points  being  adjusted  to  a 
definite  gap.  To  obtain  the  best  results  the  gap  between  these  points  should  be  from  .025  to 
.030  of  an  inch. .  If  the  motor  misses  when  running  idle  or  pulling  light,  the  spark  plug  gaps 
should  be  made  wider.  If  the  motor  misses  at  high  speed  or  when  pulling  heavy  at  low  speed, 
the  gaps  should  be  made  closer. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  many  things  which  will  cause  the  motor  to 
rniss  and  act  like  ignition  trouble,  viz.:  carburetor  being  out  of  adjustment,  leaky  valves, 
incorrect  valve  timing,  air  leaks  in  intake  manifold  or  around  valve  stems,  motor  not  oiling 
properly,  lack  of  compression,  etc. 

BULBS 

In  the  event  of  bulb  replacement  use  single  point  Mazda  bulbs  only.  Use  seven-volt 
bulbs  of  the  same  candlepower  unless  the  dash  and  tail  lights  are  connected  in  series,  in  which 
case  use  3X-volt  bulbs. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  STARTING  MOTOR 

The  starting  motor  is  intended  to  perform  one  function  only,  viz.,  spin  the  engine,  and 
should  only  be  used  for  such  purpose.  Any  attempt  to  propel  the  car  by  the  starting  mqtor 
or  indulge  in  needless  use  of  same  are  experiments  of  no  material  value  and  are  no  test  of 
the  starting  motor,  but  simply  impose  an  extravagant  demand  upon  the  battery. 

The  closing  of  the  starting  switch  completes  the  circuit  and  puts  the  starting  motor  in 
operation.  If  it  does  not  spin  the  engine,  release  the  switch  at  once,  ascertain  if  all  connec- 
tions are  tight  and  secure,  and  inspect  the  battery.  If  the  starting  motor  turns  the  engine 
over  very  slowly  it  is  evident  that  the  battery  is  weak  or  the  engine  exceptionally  stiff. 

If  the  starting  motor  is  spinning  the  engine  at  a  reasonable  cranking  speed  and  the  engine 
does  not  fire,  remember  that  the  starting  motor  is  performing  its  duty,  so  do  not  let  it  con- 
tinue to  spin  the  engine  longer  than  necessary,  as  a  needless  drain  is  placed  upon  the  battery. 
If  the  engine  does  not  fire,  it  is  evident  that  the  trouble  is  confined  to  carburetor  or  ignition. 

Oilers  are  provided  for  oiling  the  bearings  on  each  end  of  the  mqtor.  These  should  be 
given  4  or  5  drops  of  good  oil  once  every  1,000  miles. 

As  a  matter  of  precaution,  an  occasional  inspection  should  be  made  of  the  commutator 
and  brushes  to  see  that  the  brushes  are  not  sticking  in  the  holders  and  to  see  that  the  com- 
mutator is  clean  and  bright.  Carefully  clean  off  all  dirt  from  the  commutator  and  brushes. 

SHORT  CIRCUITS  AND  GROUNDS 

If  the  insulation  is  worn  off  any  one  of  the  wires  and  the  copper  touches  any  of  the  metal 
parts  of  the  car,  that  wire  is  said  to  be  "grounded."  As  the  metal  parts  of  the  car  are  used 
for  one  half  of  the  electrical  circuits,  this  forms  a  complete  circuit,  joining  two  opposite  sides 
of  the  generator,  and  is  called  a  "short  circuit"  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  apparatus  in  the 
circuit  to  utilize  the  current.  A  short  circuit  of  this  kind  dissipates  current  from  the  gen- 
erator and  battery  and  will  either  cause  a  fuse  to  burn  out  or  will,  in  time,  completely  dis- 
charge the  battery.  If  the  wires  are  not  insulated  again,  there  is  danger  also  that  the  output 
of  the  generator  will  rise  to  a  value  that  will  burn  out  the  generator  protective  fuse. 

IGNITION  FAILS 

A  break  in  the  ignition  circuit  is  the  first  thing  to  look  for  when  trouble  of  this  kind  is 
experienced.  See  that  there  are  no  open  or  short  circuits,  then  follow  out  the  instructions 
given  carefully. 


212 


INFORMATION 


Examine  the  high  tension  leads,  see  that  they  are  all  fastened  securely  to  the  distributor 
head  and  to  the  spark  plugs,  and  that  they  are  not  grounded  to  the  engine  at  any  point. 
Examine  particularly  the  lead  connected  to  the  middle  terminal  on  the  distributor  head; 
see  that  it  is  making  good  connection  to  the  terminal  on  the  side  of  the  coil. 

ALL  LIGHTS  GO  DIM 

A  short  circuit  in  the  wiring  or  a  defective  -battery  might  be  the  direct  cause  of  this 
trouble. 

The  indirect  cause  is  a  discharged  battery  due  to  short  circuits  in  the*  wiring,  leaving 


> 

1 

2 
O 

o 


DC 

O 
bl 

J 
U 

>• 
5E 
u 

ff 


Fig.  32. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


213 


the  ignition  switch  turned  on  when  the  engine  is  not  running,  using  bulbs  or  greater  candle 
power  than  those  recommended,  indiscriminate  use  of  the  lights  or  starting  motor,  using  low 
efficiency  carbon  filament  bulbs,  or  generator  not  charging  properly. 

If  the  ammeter  registers  discharge  with  all  lights  and  the  ignition  off  and  the  engine 
idle,  it  would  indicate  that  there  is  current  from  the  battery  being  dissipated  in  a  short  circuit 
in  the  wiring  or  that  the  ammeter  is  out  of  order. 

To  test  this,  disconnect  the  cable  from  one  of  the  battery  terminals.  If  the  ammeter 
hands  return  to  zero,  it  is  proof  that  there  is  a  short  circuit  in  the  wiring  which  is  dissipating 
current  from  the  battery. 


E 

LS 

j 

J  O-^ 

E  o. 

Q  £ 

<O 

CHi1'  * 

0. 

i 

1? 

_r 

LCHI- 

A f" 


Fig.   33. 


214 


INFORMATION 


If  the  ammeter  does  not  register  charge  with  all  lights  off  and  the  engine  running,  it 
would  indicate  that  the  generator  was  not  charging  properly.  An  inspection  should  be  made 
of  both  relay  and  regulator  contact  points  and  all  dust  and  dirt  carefully  removed.  A  small 
quantity  of  dirt  lodged  between  these  points  will  keep  the  generator  from  charging  properly, 
which  will  in  time  result  in  a  discharged  battery.  Also  see  that  the  generator  protective  fuse 
is  intact. 

Another  possible,  though  hardly  probable,  cause  is  that  the  relay  points  remain  closed 
after  the  engine  has  stopped.  This  would  cause  current  from  the  battery  to  be  dissipated  in 
tne  generator  windings.  If  this  is  the  case,  the  contact  may  readily  be  broken  by  releasing 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


215 


the  relay  arm  with  the  finger.     If  the  contact  points  are  rough  or  pitted,  they  should  be 
smoothed  up  with  a  piece  of  fine  (00)  sandpaper. 

GENERATOR  TEST 

A  simple  test  to  determine  if  the  generator  is  operating  properly  is,  first,  switch  all  lights 
on  with  the  engine  idle,  then  start  engine  and  run  same  reasonably  fast.  If  the  lights  brighten 
after  starting  the  engine,  it  proves  that  the  generator  is  properly  delivering  current.  This 
test  must  necessarily  be  conducted  in  the  dark,  either  in  a  garage,  or  preferably  at  night  tune. 


Fig.  35.    Remy  System. 


216 


INFORMATION 


O   r 


r  s 

- 


fc 

Id    O   S 
J     Z    < 


Fig.  36. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


217 


218 


INFORMATION 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  219 

SIMMS-HUFF  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  SYSTEM  ON  MAXWELLS 

The  Simms-Huff  starting  and  lighting  system  is  a  so-called  unit  system,  having  a  starting 
motor  and  charging  generator  combined  in  one.  It  is  mounted  on  the  left  side  of  the  engine, 
being  geared  to  the  fly-wheel  by  a  sliding  pinion  when  starting  and  driven  by  the  fan  belt 
from  the  front  end  when  generating. 

In  starting  the  engine,  the  dynamo  draws  its  heavy  current  from  a  12-volt  battery 
(2  halves,  6  volts  each,  in  series)  operating  as  a  cumulative  compound  motor;  that  is,  it  has 
two  field  (shunt  and  series)  windings,  each  acting  to  increase  the  torque  of  the  motor.  This 
gives  maximum  power  for  starting. 

When  the  engine  is  running,  the  dynamo  delivers  its  charging  current  (10  to  15  amperes) 
to  the  same  battery  at  6  volts  (2  halves,  6  volts  each  in  parallel),  operating  as  a  differential 
compound  generator,  that  is,  its  two  fields  oppose  each  other,  so  that  the  terminal  voltage 
and  consequently  the  charging  current  is  not  excessive  at  the  higher  speeds.  This  likewise 
decreases  the  steady  load  on  the  engine,  since  torque  developed  through  opposition  of  fields 
is  considerably  lessened. 

The  starting  switch  is  bolted  on  the  left  side  of  the  transmission  case  and  is  so  arranged 
as  to  automatically  connect  the  two  halves  of  the  storage  battery  in  series  (12  volts  for  motor- 
ing), or  in  parallel  (6  volts  for  generating).  With  switch  in  position  on  the  car  and  viewing 
same  from  the  left  side,  large  terminals  on  the  top,  number  from  left  to  right  1-2-3  respectively; 
on  the  bottom,  from  right  to  left,  4-5-6  respectively.  The  center  terminals,  Nos.  2  and  5,  may 
be  considered  battery  terminals;  Nos.  1  and  6  motor  terminals,  and  Nos.  3  and  4  generator 
terminals.  The  plunger  within  the  switch  box  merely  serves  to  connect  terminals  Nos.  5 
and  6,  also  Nos.  2  and  1,  when  motoring,  while  connecting  terminals  Nos.  5  and  4,  also  Nos. 
2  and  3,  when  generating. 

The  starting  operation  is  further  facilitated  by  a  dual  ignition  system,  whereby  besides 
high  tension  current  from  the  magneto,  a  dry  battery  and  coil  circuit  is  automatically  in- 
serted when  switch  is  in  starting  position.  This  intensifies  spark  at  low  speeds. 

The  two  contacts  placed  on  the  cover  of  starting  switch  afford  connection  to  internal 
make-and-break  switch,  which  is  closed  by  the  plunger  head  on  starting  and  automatically 
opened  when  plunger  falls  back  on  generating  side.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  seeing  that 
circuit  is  closed  between  these  two  contacts,  with  switch  in  starting  position,  also  that  neither 
contact  is  grounded.  (Note:  On  a  few  cars  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  invert  the  cover 
in  order  to  close  ignition  circuit  on  the  starter  side.  Accordingly,  therefore,  the  lettering  on 
these  covers  will  be  inverted  and  ignition  terminals  will  come  on  upper  half  of  the  cover.) 

The  storage  battery  used  with  this  system  is  a  Pumpelly  12-volt  battery,  split  in  halves 
to  permit  of  increased  voltage  on  starting.  Each  half  is  a  distinct  6-volt  battery  in  itself, 
but  both  are  contained  in  a  single  case  and  mounted  underneath  the  front  seat.  Assuming 
the  driver's  position  in  a  car,  that  half  farthest  to  the  right  is  designated  "R,"  that  to  the 
left  is  designated  "L."  In  this  manner  the  negative  terminal  of  the  right  half  is  designated 
" — R,"  the  plus  terminal  of  the  left  half  "+L,"  etc. 

CUT-OUT  RELAY 

On  all  generating  systems  involving  the  use  of  the  generator  and  storage  battery  to- 
gether, it  is  essential  to  provide  some  means  of  preventing  the  latter  from  discharging  into 
the  former  when  engine  is  at  a  standstill,  or  whenever  terminal  voltage  in  the  former  falls 
below  that  of  the  battery.  To  this  end  the  cut-out  relay  is  inserted  in  the  charging  circuit 
and  is  equipped  with  a  compound  shunt  and  series  winding.  As  the  generator  voltage  builds 
up,  the  current  through  the  shunt  winding  closes  the  cut-out  and  permits  the  generator  to 
charge  into  the  storage  battery.  However,  when  generator  voltage  falls  below  that  of  storage 
battery,  current  coming  from  the  latter  through  the  series  field  of  the  cut-out  automatically 
demagnetizes  the  core  and  circuit  leading  to  generator  is  opened.  This  prevents  ultimate 
discharge  of  the  battery  from  this  source. 

The  main  cut-out  contacts  are  of  spring  copper  with  auxiliary  contacts  of  carbon.  The 
arrangement  is  such  that  the  carbon  contacts  always  make-and-break  before  the  copper  con- 


220 


INFORMATION 


tacts.    In  this  manner  all  arcing  is  borne  by  the  carbons,  leaving  copper  contacts  clean  and 
free  to  carry  the  higher  currents. 

BELT  REGULATION 

In  a  system  where  only  a  cut-out  relay  is  used,  it  is  important  that  the  tension  on  fan 
belt  driving  generator  be  regulated  so  as  to  show  proper  charge  on  ammeter  at  the  dash.  A 
relative  rate  of  charging  would  be  from  8  to  15  amperes.  When  the  car  is  used  for  country 


Fig.  39.     Simms-Huff  System. 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS     .  221 

work  and  touring  where  the  electric  lights  are  not  used  to  any  great  extent,  a  charge  of  8 
amperes  is  sufficient.  However,  if  the  car  is  used  in  the  city  and  frequent  use  of  the  starter 
and  lights  is  necessary,  the  charge  should  be  nearer  15  amperes.  Briefly,  if  the  ammeter 
shows  a  charge  of  less  than  8  amperes  the  belt  should  be  tightened.  Suitable  adjustment  is 
provided  by  a  slotted  segment  and  set  bolt  on  the  fan  support,  whereby  belt  tension  can  be 
varied  considerably.  A  tight  belt,  of  course,  tends  to  speed  generator  up  and  increases  the 
charging  rate,  while  a  loose  belt  increases  slippage,  thereby  decreasing  charging  rate. 

The  combination  cut-out  and  regulator  serves  the  double  purpose  of  the  cut-out  relay 
and  belt  tension  for  regulation.  It  is  essentially  two  distinct  relays,  one  serving  precisely 
the  same  as  the  cut-out  relay  described  above,  the  other  serving  to  regulate  the  amount  of 
charge  from  generator  to  storage  battery,  regardless  of  belt  tension.  To  accomplish  this  last 
step  the  shunt  field  of  the  dynamo  is  brought  into  the  regulator  at  terminal  marked  "FLD." 
By  means  of  vibrating  contacts  an  additional  resistance  is  automatically  cut  in  the  dynamo 
field  when  voltage  rises,  and  cut  out  when  dynamo  voltage  lowers.  In  this  manner,  dynamo, 
when  generating,  is  made  to  hold  practically  constant  voltage,  with  subsequent  constant 
charge  into  the  battery.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  belt  tension  must  be  at 
least  sufficient  to  give  generator  proper  speed  for  charging  current,  as  regulator  is  only  in- 
tended for  possible  excess  charge. 

ELECTRICAL  CONNECTIONS 

In  the  wiring  of  the  car  it  will  be  noticed  that  all  wires  for  starting  service  are  heavy 
cables  inserted  in  separate  looms.  Cables  for  generating  and  lighting  circuits  are  of  smaller 
gauge  and  are  inserted  collectively  in  single  loom. 


SPLITDORF-APELCO  ELECTRIC  STARTING  AND  LIGHTING  SYSTEM 

The  Splitdorf-Apelco  Starting  and  Lighting  System  as  a  single  unit  consists  of  a  motor- 
generator,  indicating  automatic  switch  and  starting  switch,  together  with  a  12-volt  storage 
battery. 

By  connecting  the  motor-generator  across  the  terminals  of  the  battery  through  the 
starting  switch,  the  machine  acts  as  a  motor,  cranking  the  engine  until  it  runs  from  its  own 
power.  The  motor-generator  'is  then  driven  by  the  engine  as  a  generator,  furnishing  current 
for  charging  the  battery  and  other  demands.  The  armature  is  carried  on  ballbearings. 
Sprockets  and  silent  chain  are  used  for  driving  the  starting  and  lighting  unit,  no  additional 
reduction  being  necessary  than  that  secured  through  the  sprockets. 

The  current  output  of  the  generator  is  controlled  by  special  field  windings.  This  inherent 
regulation  feature  makes  it  impossible  to  charge  the  battery  at  too  high  a  rate  and  also  elim- 
inates the  uses  of  other  regulating  devices.  The  indicating  automatic  switch  is  connected  in 
the  circuit  between  the  generator  and  the  battery.  Its  function  is  to  make  connection  be- 
tween these  two  units  when  the  voltage  of  the  generator  is  higher  than  that  of  the  battery. 
In  other  words,  the  switch  automatically  closes  when  the  generator  is  being  driven  at  suf- 
ficient speeds  to  charge  the  battery,  allowing  the  current  generated  to  flow  to  the  battery. 
When  the  generator  speed  is  not  high  enough  to  produce  a  current  high  enough  in  voltage 
for  charging  the  battery,  or  the  engine  is  stopped,  the  switch  automatically  opens,  discon- 
necting the  generator  from  the  storage  battery.  This  instrument  is  equipped  with  an  indi- 
cating dial  which  shows  the  lettering  "Charge  On"  when  current  is  flowing  to  the  battery, 
and  "Charge  Off"  when  battery  is  not  being  charged.  This  switch  is  mounted  on  the  dash. 
The  starting  switch  is  used  for  starting  purposes  only.  A  12-volt  storage  battery  is  used  in 
connection  with  this  system.  The  battery  supplies  12-volt  current  to  the  motor-generator 
at  the  time  of  starting,  as  well  as  12-volt  current  for  lighting  purposes.  Fourteen-volt  bulbs 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  this  system  for  all  purposes  excepting  where  the  tail  light 
is  in  series  with  dash  light;  in  this  case  use  7- volt  lights  in  this  circuit  only.  The  most  im- 
portant points  are: 

Oil  holes  are  provided  at  the  ends  of  the  generator  for  lubricating  the  bearings.     A  few 


222 


INFORMATION 


drops  of  machine  oil  every  two  or  three  weeks  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Examine  the  com- 
mutator occasionally  to  see  that  it  is  clean  and  bright,  as  well  as  free  from  oil.  Any  dirt  can 
be  removed  with  a  piece  of  00  sandpaper.  Emery  cloth  should  never  be  used.  The  indi- 
cating automatic  switches  are  properly  adjusted  at  the  factory.  If  for  any  reason,  however, 
they  fail  to  register  properly,  consult  the  nearest  Splitdorf-Apelco  service  branch.  Fig.  40 
shows  a  general  wiring  diagram  of  the  system. 


Fig.    40.     Splitdorf-Apelco  System. 


223 

THE  WAGNER  STARTER  AND  GENERATOR 

The  Wagner  System  consists  of  motor,  generator,  starting  switch,  and  storage  battery. 
The  motor  is  a  simple  wound  machine,  and  is  in  use  only  when  the  engine  is  being  cranked 
by  it.  The  generator  is  an  especially  wound  machine  and  requires  no  regulators  or  external 
controlling  devices.  Fig.  47  gives  a  general  wiring  diagram  of  the  system.  The  only  control- 
ling device  used  in  connection  with  this  system  is  the  automatic  cut-out,  which  connects  and 
disconnects  the  generator  to  the  system  at  the  proper  time.  The  instructions  given  us  by 
the  manufacturer  of  this  system  are  as  follows: 

The  starter  will  not  start  the  engine  if  the  battery  is  not  in  reasonably  good  condition. 

If  the  starter  makes  no  attempt  to  start  whatever,  and  everything  seems  to  be  O.  K., 
including  battery,  etc.,  there  may  be  an  open  circuit  in  the  wiring  leading  from  the  battery 
to  the  starter.  With  an  open  circuit,  the  starter  cannot  start,  and  the  remedy  is  to  locate  this 
open  circuit  and  fix  it.  Examine  all  wires  carefully  and  look  for  breaks  in  the  wires.  Also 
examine  the  connections  and  look  for  loose  connections.  This  open  circuit  might  possibly 
be  in  the  switch,  due  to  contacts  not  touching  properly.  To  determine  this  condition  easily 
remove  one  of  the  wires  leading  to  the  switch  and  place  this  wire  on  the  one  still  connected. 

If  the  starter  does  not  then  start,  it  indicates  that  the  contacts  inside  of  the  switch 
are  O.  K.,  but  if  the  starter  does  start,  it  indicates  that  the  contacts  inside  of  the  switch  do 
not  touch  properly  and  the  switch  should  be  removed  from  the  car  for  examination.  The 
contacts  should  bear  against  each  other  with  a  moderate  amount  of  pressure,  thereby  insuring 
good  contact.  If  you  find  that  these  contacts  do  not  touch,  or  that  they  are  burnt  or  in  bad 
condition,  you  can  either  repair  them  or  obtain  new  contacts  to  replace  them. 

The  brushes  on  this  starter  were  set  at  the  factory  in  the  proper  place,  and  changing 
this  brush  setting  will  not  help  the  starter.  You  should,  under  no  condition,  change  this 
brush  setting. 

The  commutator  and  brushes  are  located  on  the  front  of  the  starter,  underneath  the 
cover.  This  cover  should  be  removed  from  time  to  time  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the 
condition  of  the  commutator  and  brushes.  This  commutator  should  be  smooth  and  clean, 
and  the  brushes  should  bear  on  the  commutator  with  a  moderate  amount  of  pressure.  The 
brushes  should  be  well  seated;  that  is,  they  should  touch  along  their  full  length  so  as  to  insure 
good  contact. 

If  you  find  the  commutator  dirty  or  rough  it  should  be  smoothed  up  and  cleaned  with 
fine-grained  sandpaper  and  cloth.  No  lubricant  is  to  be  used,  as  the  brushes  are  self- 
lubricating.  Application  of  vaseline  or  grease  is  harmful,  as  all  forms  of  grease  possess  insu- 
lating qualities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

If  the  starter  continues  to  revolve  after  the  engine  fires,  examine  the  heel  switch.  If  this 
switch  is  stuck  so  that  it  did  not  open  when  you  released  it,  the  starter  is  still  connected  to 
the  battery  and  will  continue  to  run  until  this  switch  is  opened.  If  you  find  that  this  switch 
is  open  and  the  starter  still  running,  the  trouble  is  with  the  roller  clutch  on  the  engine. 

You  should  under  no  circumstances  add  special  switches  or  devices  to  the  starting 
equipment.  It  is  very  likely  that  you  will  not  put  these  devices  in  the  circuit  properly  and 
thereby  cause  the  starter  to  fail.  The  switches,  etc.,  employed  in  this  system  are  of  special 
construction,  suitable  for  operation  in  6- volt  circuits,  and  if  you  add  appliances  which  are 
not  suitable  for  the  service  you  will  not  get  satisfactory  results. 

Failure  to  start  may  be  caused  by  a  short  circuit  in  the  field  or  armature  of  starter. 
This  short  circuit  can  usually  be  detected  by  excessive  heat  in  the  starter  and  possibly  smoke 
•  coming  from  the  starter  when  the  starting  switch  is  closed.  A  short  circuit  may  also  manifest 
itself  by  a  low  starting  power  with  a  full  battery.  If  the  starter  is  found  to  contain  a  short 
circuit  or  ground,  it  should  be  sent  to  a  repair  shop  for  repairs.  If  this  cannot  be  done 
locally,  it  should  be  returned  to  the  factory. 

The  ball  bearings  should  be  kept  lubricated  with  a  good  grade  of  machine  oil,  using 
about  6  drops  per  1,000  miles.  If  these  bearings  are  not  kept  lubricated  they  may  become 
worn,  which  will  allow  the  armature  to  rub  on  the  field.  Should  the  starter  be  in  this  con- 
dition it  will  not  start,  and  the  remedy  is  to  supply  new  bearings. 

The  starter  should  be  kept  free  from  excessive  moisture.     Ordinary  moisture  will  not 


224  INFORMATION 

hurt  the  starter,  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  wet,  such  as  would  be 
the  case  if  the  starter  were  to  become  submerged  in  water.  This  is  likely  to  happen  while 
fording  a  stream.  If  you  find  that  the  starter  has  been  submerged,  do  not  attempt  to  use  it 
until  it  has  been  removed  from  the  car,  the  commutator  cover  removed  and  baked  24  hours 
in  an  oven  whose  temperature  shall  not  exceed  220°  Fahrenheit.  A  higher  temperature  in 
the  baking  would  damage  the  insulation.  If  this  baking  process  is  not  successful,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  send  the  starter  to  either  a  first-class  local  repair  shop  or  to  the  factory  for 
repairs. 

If  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  relay  on  the  generator  is  not  operating  properly,  or 
that  the  generator  is  not  charging  properly,  place  an  ammeter  in  circuit  and  make  the  test 
recited  below,  which  tells  how  the  relay,  tell-tale,  and  ammeter  should  act.  Be  sure  that 
the  ammeter  is  so  connected  that  it  will  read  in  a  forward  direction  when  the  generator  is 
charging  and  the  tell-tale  indicating  charge. 

The  test  should  be  made  with  all  lights  out  and  ignition  on  the  dry  cells,  because 
then  the  relay  and  tell-tale  will  act  simultaneously,  and  therefore  the  tell-tale  will  serve  as  an 
indicator  showing  how  the  relay  is  acting. 

The  ammeter  needle  should  stand  at  zero  and  the  tell-tale  should  show  "off"  when  the 
generator  is  not  running.  The  relay  is  now  open. 

Start  the  engine  and  speed  it  up  slowly.  This  ammeter  needle  should  remain  at  zero 
and  the  tell-tale  should  remain  off.  until  the  engine  speed  is  equivalent  to  a  car  speed  of  7  to 
10  miles  per  hour.  At  this  speed  the  relay  should  close  and  the  ammeter  needle  will  register 
the  charging  current,  and  the  tell-tale  should  show  charge  as  soon  as  the  relay  closes. 

Throttle  the  engine  slowly  and  note  the  ammeter  needle.  When  the  speed  has  been 
decreased  sufficiently,  the  ammeter  needle  will  read  backwards  and  the  tell-tale  will  show 
discharge.  This  discharge  current  shown  by  the  tell-tale  will  only  last  for  an  instant,  because 
the  relay  will  then  open  and  the  ammeter  needle  should  read  zero  and  the  tell-tale  show  off 
as  soon  as  the  relay  opens.  This  relay  should  open  at  an  engine  speed  equivalent  to  a  car 
speed  of  5  to  8  miles  per  hour. 

If  the  action  of  the  ammeter  and  tell-tale  does  not  correspond  according  to  the  above, 
be  guided  by  the  ammeter  indication  as  showing  how  the  relay  is  acting. 

If  the  above  test  shows  that  the  tell-tale  indicates  discharge  continually  and  the  am- 
meter verifies  this  by  reading  backwards,  it  means  that  the  relay  is  out  of  adjustment.  This 
could  also  be  caused  by  the  relay  being  stuck  at  the  points  so  that  the  relay  cannot  open. 

If  the  tell-tale  indicates  discharge  when  all  lights  are  cut,  horn  not  blowing,  ignition 
switch  open,  and  the  ammeter  reads  zero,  it  means  that  there  is  a  short  circuit  or  ground 
somewhere  in  the  system  which  will  drain  the  battery.  This  is  provided  the  tell-tale  is  not 
Stuck  and  is  indicating  correctly. 

If  the  relay  does  not  close  according  to  the  above  test,  there  is  probably  trouble  in  the 
relay,  but  more  likely  the  commutator  and  brushes  are  rough  or  dirty. 

If  the  above  test  shows  that  the  relay  closes  (by  observation)  properly,  but  that  the 
generator  furnishes  no  current,  shown  by  the  ammeter  reading  zero,  it  means  that  the 
relay  contact  points  do  not  make  contact.  Examine  these  contact  points  and  if  they  are 
burnt  beyond  repair,  a  new  relay  should  be  substituted.  The  generator  must  not  be 
used  with  the  relay  in  this  condition,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  damaged.  If  the  car  must 
be  used  until  a  new  relay  can  be  substituted,  remove  the  damaged  relay  and  ground  the  gen- 
erator terminal.  Remove  the  ground  wire  when  the  new  relay  is  installed.  This  must  be 
done  with  the  engine  standing  still. 

You  should  not  attempt  to  make  adjustments  of  the  relay,  but  substitute  a  new  one. 

The  commutator  and  brushes  should  be  kept  perfectly  smooth  and  clean.  If  the  gen- 
erator refuses  to  charge  it  might  be  due  to  dirty  commutator  and  brushes,  or  possibly 
due  to  a  rough  commutator,  both  of  which  will  cause  bad  contact.  The  cover  should 
be  removed  from  time  to  time  to  inspect  the  condition  of  the  commutator  and  brushes.  If 
they  are  found  to  be  dirty  or  rough,  they  should  be  smoothed  up  with  fine-grained  sandpaper 
and  cloth. 

To  clean  the  commutator,  speed  your  engine  up  to  about  1,000  revolutions  per  minute 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS  225 

and  wipe  off  the  commutator  with  a  piece  of  cloth  dampened  with  kerosene,  so  as  to  remove 
grease  and  dirt.  If  the  commutator  is  apparently  rough,  hold  a  piece  of  very  fine  sandpaper, 
grade  00,  on  the  commutator  while  the  generator  is  running.  Move  the  sandpaper  back  and 
forth  across  the  face  of  the  commutator  so  as  to  smooth  it  evenly.  Do  not  use  emery  cloth. 

To  clean  the  brushes  it  is  not  necessary  to  remove  them  from  the  holders.  Lift  the 
brushes  and  wipe  off  the  surface  with  a  piece  of  cloth  dampened  with  gasoline.  If  the  brush 
surface  is  apparently  rough  insert  a  piece  of  sandpaper,  grade  00  (rough  side  toward  the 
brush),  under  each  brush  separately  and  then  let  the  brush  press  on  the  sandpaper.  Draw 
the  sandpaper  back  and  forth  across  the  commutator,  taking  care  that  it  is  held  in  such  a 
way  that  it  conforms  to  the  curvature  of  the  commutator. 

Do  not  use  the  sandpaper  on  either  commutator  or  brushes  without  first  trying  to  get 
results  by  wiping  off  the  dirt  as  outlined  on  preceding  page. 

No  lubricant  is  to  be  used,  as  the  brushes  are  self-lubricating.  Application  of  vaseline 
or  grease  is  harmful,  as  all  forms  of  grease  possess  insulating  qualities  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent. 

Dirty  or  rough  commutator  can  be  detected  by  connecting  in  circuit  a  low  reading  volt- 
meter (scale  0  to  30  volts).  Connect  one  terminal  of  the  voltmeter  to  terminal  (X)  and  the 
voltmeter  terminal  to  the  generator  foundation  bolt.  Then  speed  your  engine  up  to  a  speed 
corresponding  to  a  car  speed  of  15  or  20  miles  per  hour.  This  voltmeter  should  show  (6) 
volts  or  more  and  the  relay  should  be  closed,  showing  charge  on  the  tell-tale.  If  this  volt- 
meter does  not  show  (6)  volts  or  more  it  indicates  a  dirty  or  rough  commutator  or  else  an 
open  circuit  in  the  shunt  field.  Press  down  lightly  on  the  brushes  while  the  generator  is  run- 
ning, and  if  this  causes  the  voltmeter  to  indicate  and  the  relay  to  close,  the  trouble  is  bad 
brush  contact.  If  the  voltmeter  cannot  be  made  to  indicate  and  the  relay  to  close  by 
cleaning  the  commutator  and  pressing  on  the  brushes,  the  trouble  is  probably  an  open  cir- 
cuit in  the  shunt  field,  which  will  have  to  be  repaired  either  locally  or  by  sending  the  gen- 
erator to  the  factory. 

If  the  voltmeter  does  show  (6)  volts  or  more,  or  can  be  made  to  show  (6)  volts  or  more 
by  pressing  on  the  brushes  or  by  cleaning  the  commutator  and  brushes,  and  the  relay  will 
not  close,  it  means  that  the  relay  is  not  in  proper  adjustment  and  a  new  one  should  be 
supplied. 

The  tension  spring  should  not  be  changed  either  intentionally  or  accidentally,  as  this 
will  throw  the  relay  out  of  adjustment. 

If  the  battery  continues  to  run  down,  and  apparently  the  generator  does  not  charge 
fast  enough  to  keep  the  battery  full,  it  might  be  well  to  measure  the  charging  current  as 
follows: 

Place  an  ammeter  in  circuit,  using  No.  O-B  &  S  copper  cable  in  just  as  short  lengths 
as  possible.  Place  a  voltmeter,  scale  0  to  30  volts,  in  circuit  by  connecting  one  terminal  of 
the  voltmeter  to  the  terminal  (X)  of  the  generator.  Connect  the  other  terminal  of  the  volt- 
meter to  one  of  the  foundation  bolts  (Y)  on  the  generator  by  raising  this  bolt  and  then  tight- 
ening it  down  on  the  wire. 

Start  the  engine  and  take  readings  of  amperes  and  volts  for  car  speeds  up  to  25  miles  per 
hour,  taking  several  readings  between  8  and  25  miles  per  hour.  The  maximum  charging  cur- 
rent should  be  about  17  amperes  with  a  corresponding  generator  voltage  of  8.6  volts,  and  this 
maximum  current  should  occur  at  a  car  speed  of  from  15  to  20  miles  per  hour.  The  charging 
current  will  decrease  at  higher  car  speeds  so  as  not  to  overcharge  the  battery  while  touring 
at  fairly  high  speed. 

If  you  find  that  the  maximum  charging  current  is  materially  lower  than  the  above 
values,  it  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  generator  is  improperly  set,  but  more  likely 
means  that  the  battery  is  sulphated,  due  to  standing  idle  without  attention,  or  else  the 
generator  brushes  and  commutator  need  attention.  If  the  commutator  and  brushes 


226  INFORMATION 

are  put  in  good  condition,  and  if  the  battery  is  fully  charged  and  free  from  sulphate,  the 
generator  amperes  and  voltage  will  rise  back  to  the  values  given  above. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  find  that  the  charging  amperes  and  voltage  are  materially 
higher  than  the  above  values,  it  very  likely  means  that  there  is  some  unnecessarily  high 
resistance  in  the  charging  circuit.'  You  will  very  likely  find  one  or  two  loose  connections 
on  the  generator,  relay,  battery,  or  indicator,  which  have  come  loose  due  to  vibration.  If 
these  loose  connections  are  tightened,  the  charging  current  will  very  likely  drop  down  to 
normal. 

Be  sure  to  use  No.  O-B  &  S  copper  wire  or  larger,  for  the  ammeter  connections 
and  make  them  as  short  as  possible.  If  smaller  wire  is  used,  the  increased  resist- 
ance will  act  the  same  as  a  loose  connection,  and  your  test  will  be  incorrect. 

If  you  find  that  the  charging  current  is  O.  K.,  but  will  not  keep  your  battery  up,  it  means 
that  you  should  note  the  size  of  your  lamps  to  see  if  they  are  the  same  size  as  those  furnished 
with  the  car.  If  you  find  that  the  lamps  are  of  the  same  size  as  those  furnished  with  the 
car,  and  still  a  peak  charging  current  of  17  amperes  at  15  or  20  miles  per  hour  will  not  keep 
the  battery  charged,  the  driving  conditions  are  probably  responsible  for  the  trouble.  This 
assumes  that  the  battery  is  in  first-class  condition. 

If  a  great  deal  of  slow  driving  is  done  at  night  with  all  lights  burning,  and  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  let  the  car  stand  at  the  curb  with  all  lights  burning,  this  will  demand  an  excessive 
current  from  the  battery.  This  same  amount  of  current  must  be  put  back  into  the  battery 
and  the  engine  run  long  enough  to  do  this.  In  other  words,  the  car  must  be  driven  enough 
in  the  day  time  to  put  back  into  the  battery  what  is  taken  out  at  night.  If  driving  conditions 
correspond  with  this  schedule,  this  matter  should  be  taken  up  with  the  manufacturer  of  the 
car,  or  some  other  provision  must  be  made  for  this  class  of  service.  Always  turn  out  the 
headlights  when  the  car  is  standing  still  and  is  to  remain  standing  for  some  time. 

The  generator  must  be  kept  free  from  excessive  moisture.  Ordinary  moisture  will  not 
affect  the  generator,  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  wet,  such  as  would 
be  the  case  if  the  generator  were  to  become  submerged  under  water.  This  is  likely  to  happen 
while  fording  a  stream.  If  the  generator  is  wet  it  should  not  be  operated  until  it  is  thoroughly 
dried  out. 

The  condition  of  the  battery  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  operation  of  the  generator, 
lights,  and  starter.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  that  you  have  your  battery  in  good  condition. 

If  it  ever  becomes  necessary  to  operate  the  car  with  the  battery  removed  from 
the  car,  take  a  piece  of  No.  10  copper  wire  and  connect  one  end  of  this  wire  to  gen- 
erator terminal  (X).  Connect  the  other  end  of  this  wire  to  the  generator  frame 
by  raising  up  one  of  the  foundation  bolts  at  (Y),  and  then  tightening  the  bolt  down 
on  the  wire.  Be  sure  that  you  have  good  metallic  contact  at  both  points  (X)  and  (Y). 

When  you  replace  the  battery  on  the  car  and  reconnect  it,  be  sure  to  remove 
this  wire. 

TESTS  FOR  GROUNDS  AND  SHORT  CIRCUITS 

The  following  test  will  enable  you  to  locate  short  circuits  in  different  portions  of  the 
starting  and  lighting  system: 

Disconnect  the  wire  from  the  generator  and  disconnect  the  two  wires  from  the  starter. 
Disconnect  entirely  one  terminal  of  the  battery  and  connect  these  wires  to  one  terminal  of 
an  ammeter  reading  at  least  0  to  20  amperes.  Connect  a  piece  of  wire  to  the  other  terminal 
of  the  ammeter,  and  hold  the  other  end  of  this  wire  in  the  hand  ready  to  touch  the  battery 
terminal,  which  has  been  disconnected,  according  to  the  following: 

With  the  starter  and  generator  disconnected,  all  lighting  switches  open,  ignition  switch 
open,  and  horn  not  blowing,  touch  the  ammeter  wire  to  the  battery  terminal.  If  the  am- 
meter registers  any  current,  no  matter  how  little,  it  means  that  there  is  a  short  circuit  in  the 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


227 


Fig.  47.     Wagner  System. 


228  INFORMATION 

wiring  of  the  car  somewhere  between  the  battery,  junction  box,  generator,  or  starter.  If 
the  ammeter  shows  a  heavy  current,  it  means  a  severe  short  circuit. 

Reconnect  the  wire  to  the  generator  and  touch  the  wire  to  the  battery  terminal.  If  the 
ammeter  indicates  current,  it  might  be  due  to  the  relay  being  stuck  at  the  points.  Ex- 
amine this  relay,  and  if  it  is  found  to  be  open  and  not  stuck,  and  the  ammeter  still  registers 
current,  it  means  that  there  is  a  short  circuit  somewhere  in  the  generator  windings. 

Disconnect  the  generator  again,  remove  all  lamps  from  the  sockets,  and  then  turn  on 
each  lighting  circuit  separately  and  note  the  indication  of  the  ammeter,  touching  the  am- 
meter wire  to  the  battery  terminal.  If  it  is  found  that  with  any  one  lighting  switch  turned 
on  the  ammeter  registers  current,  it  means  that  there  is  a  short  circuit  on  that  particular 
lighting  circuit. 

Do  not  under  any  consideration  close  the  starting  switch  with  the  ammeter 
in  circuit,  as  the  current  required  by  the  starter  will  damage  the  ammeter.  To  test  for  a 
short  circuit  in  the  starter,  you  should  remove  the  ammeter  and  replace  the  wires  on  the 
battery  as  before  and  then  start  the  engine  in  the  regular  way.  A  short  circuit  in  the  starter 
will  usually  manifest  itself  by  low  starting  power,  and  possibly  smoke  coming  from  the  starter 
winding.  The  battery  must  be  fully  charged  for  this  test. 

If  you  find  short  circuits  in  any  part  of  the  system  according  to  the  above  test,  these 
short  circuits  should  be  removed  by  insulating  the  places  where  the  short  circuits  occur. 

Caution:  Do  not  experiment  with  the  starting  and  lighting  system.  The 
tests  enumerated  herein  are  meant  to  be  used  in  locating  trouble.  If  the  starting 
and  lighting  system  is  working  satisfactorily,  let  it  alone  except  for  necessary  oiling 
of  the  bearings  on  the  starter  and  generator.  If  actual  trouble  occurs,  then  is  the 
time  to  resort  to  these  tests. 

If  you  are  not  getting  satisfactory  results  from  your  starting  and  lighting  system,  and  if 
you  cannot  locate  the  trouble  by  following  these  instructions,  drive  your  car  to  the  nearest 
Studebaker  Service  Station.  They  have  competent  men  to  serve  you.  If  you  cannot 
locate  your  trouble  they  can  call  on  the  Wagner  Co.  for  the  service  of  an  expert. 

There  will  be  no  expense  attached  to  this  service  if  the  trouble  has  been  caused  by  a 
defect  in  the  system,  but  there  will  be  a  service  charge  if  the  trouble  has  been  caused  by 
neglect,  or  if  the  service  rendered  is  in  the  nature  of  "up-keep." 

THE  WARD  LEONARD  CONSTANT  CURRENT  DYNAMO  CONTROLLER 

The  controller  performs  three  different  functions,  regulates  the  voltage  and  output  of 
the  generator,  and  connects  the  generator  into  the  system  and  disconnects  it  from  the  system 
at  the  proper  time.  This  device  is  used  in  connection  with  a  number  of  prominent  makes  of 
systems  used  on  motor  cars.  The  skeleton  diagram  shows  the  circuits  of  the  controller  and 
the  connections  to  a  simple  shunt  wound  generator  and  storage  battery.  There  are  four 
terminals  on  the  regulator  and  they  are  marked  A,  D,  B,  and  C.  The  following  instruction 
in  regard  to  this  controller  is  as  given  us  by  its  maker.  See  Fig.  48. 

THE  WARD  LEONARD  AUTOMATIC  CONTROLLER 

This  controller  automatically  keeps  the  dynamo  output  constant  regardless  of  the  engine 
and  dynamo  speeds,  and  embodies  as  part  of  it  an  automatic  switch  which  properly  connects 
and  disconnects  the  dynamo  to  the  battery. 

In  a  dynamo  its  energy  output  increases  with  the  speed  unless  a  method  of  controlling 
it  is  adopted.  With  the  Ward  Leonard  Controller  the  energy  output  of  the  dynamo  to  the 
battery  is  made  to  control  itself  by  causing  a  series  of  recurrent  fluctuations  of  energy  to 
pass  to  the  battery. 

Refer  to  cuts:  The  energy  output  of  the  dynamo  passes  through  the  series  switch  wind- 
ing "F."  When  10  amperes  is  reached  it  attracts  its  keeper  "H"  and  opens  the  circuit  at  "EE," 


AUTOMOBILE    SYSTEMS 


229 


thereby  inserting  a  resistance  "M"  in  series  with  the  dynamo  field.  This  weakens  the  field 
and  reduces  the  dynamo  energy  output.  When  the  amperes  decrease  to,  say  9  amperes,  the 
coil  "F"  is  not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  armature  "H"  against  the  action  of  the  spring  "J" 
and  the  contact  "EE"  is  made  again,  short  circuiting  the  resistance  "M."  This  increases  the 
field  strength  and  the  dynamo  output  tends  to  increase.  When  it  is  increased  to  10  amperes 
the  contacts  "EE"  are  opened,  inserting  resistance  "M."  This  same  cycle  of  operation  of 
inserting  and  shunt  resistance  "M"  keeps  occurring  as  the  dynamo  speed  is  increased.  Under 
operating  conditions  the  finger  (H)  automatically  and  rapidly  vibrates  at  such  a  rate  as  to 
keep  the  voltage  constant. 

The  voltage  switch  "DD"  connects  the  dynamo  to  the  line  when  the  dynamo  voltage 
is  greater  than  the  battery  voltage  and  disconnects  the  dynamo  from  the  line  when  the  battery 
voltage  is  greater  than  the  dynamo  voltage. 


Lightning  Switch 


t         t 

B*eist»nce    Djnatne 
Unit          Field 


t         t 

Armature      Series  Switch  VolUge  Switch  B»tterl 
Normally  Marmall/ 

Closed  Open 

Fig.  48.     Ward-Leonard  Regulator. 


t 

Umpe 


SECTION  7 

MAGNETOS 


MAGNETOS 

Contains  General  Information  Concerning  Magnetos  Used  on  Motor  Cars. 

Information,  Instruction,  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Simms  Magnetos  of  the  Inde- 
pendent, Dual  and  Water  Proof  Types  S  U  4,  S  U  6,  S  U  4  D,  S  U  6  D,  S  U  4  S,  and 
SU6S. 

Information,  Instruction  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Bosch  Magnetos  of  the  D  U 
and  S  R  Types,  Bosch  Two  Independent  System,  Bosch  Vibrating  Duplex  System 
and  Bosch  Duplex  with  L  A  2,  M  A,  L  A  I,  N  A  I,  and  N  U  Coils. 

Information,  Instruction,  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Mea  Magnetos  of  the  Dual 
Types,  S  S,  S  C  and  S  C  2. 

Information,  Instruction,  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Eisemann  Magnetos  of  the 
E  B  Types  with  B  D  Coil,  E  A,  E  U  and  E  D  Types  with  Manual  Control  in  connection 
with  D  T,  D  2  U,  and  D  C  R  Coils.  Automatic  Spark  Control  Types  E  R  A,  E  D  A 
and  E  U  A  with  D  C  R  Coils,  Eisemann  High  Tension  Dual  System  with  E  M,  D  C, 
and  D  C  R  Coils. 

Information,  Instruction,  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Remy  R  D  Perfected  Inductor 
Types  and  Types  R  L  with  L  E  Coil  or  L  C  Coil  with  D  or  H  Switch. 

Information,  Instruction,  and  Wiring  Diagrams  of  Splitdorf  Magnetos  of  the 
A,  A  W,  A  X,  W,  X  and  Z  Types. 

MAGNETOS 

For  ignition  purposes,  in  connection  with  internal  combustion  engines,  the  mag- 
neto is  considered  a  very  efficient  and  reliable  device.  There  have  been  three  types 
of  magnetos  in  use  for  quite  a  time,  which  are: 

1.  The  low  tension  magneto  in  connection  with  step-up  coil,  furnishing  a  jump 
spark. 

2.  Low  tension  magneto  in  connection  with  make  and  break  system. 

3.  High  tension  magneto,  furnishing  a  jump  spark. 

The  low  tension  magneto  in  connection  with  the  make  and  break  system  is 
generally  used  on  stationary  engines,  so  we  will  not  discuss  it  here. 

A  low  tension  magneto  has  but  one  winding  on  the  armature,  which  is  called 
the  primary.  This  magneto  generates  a  low  voltage  current  at  all  times.  In  order 
that  the  current  be  raised  to  the  right  voltage,  an  induction  (step-up  transformer) 
coil  is  used  in  connection  with  it. 

A  high  tension  magneto  has  two  windings  on  the  armature.  They  are  called 
the  primary  and  secondary  windings.  In  the  operation  of  this  type  of  magneto, 
current  is  induced  into  the  secondary  winding  from  the  primary,  thereby  raising 
the  voltage  as  desired. 

A  condenser  is  used  in  connection  with  all  jump  spark  ignition  systems.  With 
the  low  tension  MAGNETO  system  it  is  generally  made  as  a  part  of  the  coil.  With 

231 


232  INFORMATION 

the  high  tension  MAGNETO  system,  it  is  generally  located  in  the  armature.  The 
condenser  assists  in  eliminating  sparking  at  the  platinum  breaker  contacts,  and 
assists  in  increasing  the  voltage  of  the  secondary  current. 

In  either  the  high  or  low  tension  magneto  systems,  a  spark  is  produced  for  igni- 
tion purposes  when  the  interrupter  or  breaker  contacts  open. 

In  the  dual  systems  a  storage  battery  or  set  of  dry  cells  is  used  as  a  source  of 
energy  for  the  battery  part  of  ignition.  In  some  instances  the  same  interrupter 
contacts  are  used  for  both  magneto  and  battery  ignition,  while  in  others  two  sepa- 
rate interrupters  are  employed.  Where  both  systems  operate  on  the  one  interrupter, 
ignition  spark  is  produced  when  the  interrupter  contacts  open.  When  two  separate 
interrupters  are  employed,  ignition  on  the  magneto  side  occurs  when  the  inter- 
rupter contacts  open,  and  on  the  battery  side  ignition  takes  place  when  the  inter- 
rupter contacts  close,  with  only  a  few  exceptions. 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  timing  of  magnetos,  whether  of  the  high  or 
low  tension  types.  The  setting  as  a  rule  is  as  follows:  Crank  engine  until  piston 
in  cylinder  No.  1  is  at  top'  dead  center  or  on  full  compression  stroke.  Set  magneto 
armature  in  position  so  that  the  interrupter  contacts  are  just  starting  to  open. 
Make  high  tension  connections  in  the  usual  way.  While  the  instructions  for  setting 
and  timing  of  magnetos  are  given  in  many  different  ways,  there  is  not  a  great  lot 
of  difference  in  their  timing.  It  is  well,  however,  to  follow  the  instruction  given 
by  the  maker,  if  such  is  to  be  had,  but  the  above  instruction  will  always  work  out 
very  good  with  all  magnetos. 

Magnetos  of  different  makes  and  different  types  require  different  settings  or 
adjustments  of  the  breaker  (interrupter)  contacts  and  the  spark  plug  gaps.  The 
following  adjustments  cover  all  of  the  systems  shown  in  this  book: 

Bosch  Systems. 

Set  interrupter  contacts  to  open  from  .015  to  .016  inch.  Set  spark  gaps  about 
.020.  There  may  be  a  slight  difference  in  the  various  types,  but  this  setting  will 
prove  very  satisfactory  under  nearly  all  conditions. 

Eisemann  Systems. 

Type  E.  M. — Breaker  contacts  open  .015  inch;  spark  plug  gaps  from  .015  to  .030 
inch,  the  spark  gap  depending  upon  characteristics  of  engine.  Types  ERa,  EDa,  and 
EUa — Breaker  contacts  should  open  not  more  than  .015  inch;  set  spark  plug  gaps 
from  .015  to  .018  inch.  Types  E.A.,  E.U.,  and  E.D. — Set  breaker  contacts  to  open 
from  .015  to  .020  inch;  set  spark  plug  gaps  .016  inch.  Types  E.  B. — Set  breaker 
points  between  .015  and  .020  inch;  set  spark  plug  gaps  from  .025  to  .030  inch. 

Mea  Systems. 

Breaker  points  should  open  from  .015  to  .017  inch;  spark  plug  gaps  should  be 
about  the  same  distance. 

Simnis  Systems. 

Set  interrupter  contacts  to  open  about  .015  inch;  set  spark  gaps  opening  about 
.020  inch. 

Splitdorf  Systems. 

Set  breaker  points  to  separate  about  .025  inch;  set  spark  plug  gaps  not  to 
exceed  .030  inch. 

Remy  Systems. 

Set  breaker  contacts  to  open  between  .025  and  .030  inch;  set  spark  plug  gaps 
with  same  opening. 


A  G  N  E  T  0  S  233 


MAGNETIZER    or    (MAGNET    CHARGER) 
Operates  irom  a  Six  Volt  Storage  Battery 


In  meeting  a  long-felt  want  for  an  instrument  to  give  new  life  to  tired  or  lazy 
magnetos,  we  offer  the  Auto  Magnetizer  or  Magnet  Charger  which  is  designed 
to  operate  from  an  ordinary  six-volt  storage  battery  or  five  or  six  ordinary  dry 
cells.  With  a  fully  charged  6-volt  60-ampere  battery,  75  to  100  magnetos  can  be 
remagnetized. 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  among  magneto  manufacturers  that  for  a  magneto  to 
give  its  maximum  efficiency  indefinitely  the  magnets  should  be  charged  or  remag- 
netized occasionally. 

Complete  instructions  for  operating  accompany  every  outfit. 

Positively  guaranteed.    Price  $10.00. 

AUTO    ELECTRIC    SYSTEMS   PUB.   CO. 
Dayton,  Ohio. 

BOSCH    "TWO    INDEPENDENT"   SYSTEM. 

The  Bosch  "Two  Independent"  system  provides  a  means  by  which  the  engine 
may  be  started  on  the  press  button  or  at  a  very  low  cranking  speed,  and  the  battery 
system  is  available  for  emergency  ignition,  in  case  of  accident  to  the  magneto. 

In  order  .that  the  system  may  be  employed,  locations  for  two  sets  of  spark  plugs 
must  be  provided,  and  there  must  be  a  drive  for  the  magneto  at  proper  speed,  as 
well  as  a  drive  at  cam  shaft  speed  for  the  timer-distributor. 

Any  of  the  standard  models  of  independent  Bosch  magnetos  may  be  used,  no 
change  whatever  being  necessary. 

The  battery  system  consists  of  a  combined  coil  and  switch,  and  a  timer-dis- 
tributor, which  are  completely  independent  of  the  magneto. 

The  two  systems  are  brought  together  at  the  switch,  and  the  connections  are 
such  that  the  engine  may  be  operated  on  the  magneto  with  one  set  of  plugs,  or  on 
the  battery  with  the  other  set  of  plugs,  or  on  the  battery  and  magneto  together, 
in  which  both  sets  of  plugs  will  spark.  The  battery  or  magneto  system  may  be  used 
for  ignition  with  the  other  system  entirely  dismantled  or  removed  from  the  engine. 

Installation. 

In  installing  the  Bosch  two  independent  system,  it  is  necessary  that  the  inter- 
rupter of  the  magneto  and  the  circuit  breaker  of  the  timer-distributor  break  their 
respective  circuits  at  the  same  moment.  It  is  only  under  this  condition  that  the 
simultaneous  operation  of  the  two  systems  by  throwing  the  switch  to  the  position 
"MB"  will  be  effective. 

The  first  step  is  to  set  the  magneto  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  given 
for  that  particular  type.  The  only  new  parts  of  the  two  independent  system  are 
those  operated  by  the  battery,  and  the  handling  of  the  magneto  is  in  exact  accord- 
ance with  the  instructions  given  for  the  independent  instruments. 

The  next  step  is  to  set  the  timer-distributor  in  synchronism  with  the  magneto. 


234  INFORMATION 

The  distributor-plate  of  the  timer-distributor  should  be  removed,  which  is  done  by 
loosening  the  side  springs.  This  will  permit  the  movement  of  the  circuit  breaker 
lever  to  be  observed.  The  timer-distributor  is  to  be  placed  on  the  shaft  arranged  to 
drive  it,  with  the  sleeve  loose,  and  timing  control  arm  is  to  be  connected  to  the  con- 
trol rods  in  the  usual  manner.  The  arrangement  of  the  control  apparatus  is  usually 
such  that  its  movement  will  cause  a  corresponding  and  simultaneous  movement  of 
the  timer-distributor  and  magneto  control  apparatus.  The  timing  control  lever 
should  be  placed  in  the  full  advance  position,  and  the  motor  cranked  until  it  is 
observed  that  the  magneto  interrupter  is  in  the  act  of  breaking. 

Sleeve  shaft  of  the  timer-distributor  should  then  be  revolved  in  the  direction 
in  which  it  will  be  driven,  until  timing  lever  is  in  the  act  of  breaking.  This  is  the 
position  in  which  the  timer-distributor  should  be  set,  and  a  mark  should  be  made 
on  the  base  of  the  sleeve  to  correspond  with  a  mark  on  the  shaft,  so  that  when  the 
timer-distributor  is  removed,  it  may  be  replaced  in  the  proper  position.  When  the 
timer-distributor  is  secured  in  position,  the  battery  timer  and  magneto  interrupter 
should  break  their  respective  circuits  at  the  same  time. 

Connections. 

The  connections  of  the  timer-distributor  must  be  made  in  accordance  with  the 
wiring  diagram  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  positive  terminal  of  the  battery  is  to  be 
grounded,  and  the  negative  terminal  led  to  No.  5  of  the  stationary  switch  plate. 
Switch  terminal  No.  1  is  then  to  be  connected  with  the  binding  post  located  on  the 
under  side  of  the  timer-distributor.  The  second  binding  post  on  the  timer-distribu- 
tor, which  is  located  on  the  under  side  of  the  timer  control  arm,  is  to  be  grounded. 
Switch  terminal  No.  2  is  to  be  connected  to  the  grounding  terminal  of  the  magneto. 

The  cover  of  the  timer-distributor  may  then  be  replaced,  but  a  careful  note 
should  be  made  of  the  distributor  terminal,  with  which  the  distributor  brush  is  in 
contact.  The  distributor  terminal  should  be  connected  to  the  proper  spark  plug  of 
the  cylinder  with  which  the  distributor  of  the  magneto  is  in  circuit.  The  remaining 
distributor  contacts  should  be  connected  in  accordance  with  the  firing  order  of  the 
engine,  and  will,  of  course,  be  identical  with  the  connections  of  the  magneto.  Switch 
contact  No.  4  is  then  to  be  connected  to  the  central  contact  of  the  timer,  this  com- 
pleting the  connections. 

Detection  of  Trouble. 

If  there  is  a  failure  of  ignition,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  fault 
is  in  the  magneto  or  battery  system,  and  this  may  be  done  by  comparing  the  opera- 
tion of  the  engine  with  the  switch  in  "B"  and  in  "31"  positions. 

If  this  shows  the  fault  to  be  in  the  magneto,  that  instrument  should  be  tested 
and  examined. 

In  the  following  description  of  the  location  of  faults  in  the  battery  system,  11 
is  taken  for  granted  that  the  operation  of  the  magneto  is  satisfactory. 

1.  Missing  in  one  Cylinder.     A  failure  of  this  character  will  almost  invariably 
be  due  to  a  defective  spark  plug,  but  if  the  failure  persists  after  a  new  spark  plug 
has  been  inserted,  the  cables  should  be  examined  for  a  defect. 

2.  Irregular  Ignition  in  all  Cylinders  or  complete  failure  of  Ignition.       This 
condition  may  be  due  to  a  weak  battery,  the  voltage  of  which  has  dropped  below 
the  required  six  volts. 

If  the  battery  shows  the  proper  voltage,  cables  1,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  should  be  ex- 
amined to  see  that  they  are  in  good  condition,  and  the  connections  properly  made. 
The  battery  interrupter  should  also  be  examined  for  the  free  working  of  the  lever, 
and  to  see  that  the  points  are  clean  and  in  good  condition. 

If  the  failure  persists,  the  switch  contacts  should  be  inspected. 

To  determine  the  condition  of  the  spark  coil,  cable  No.  4  should  be  disconnected 


MAGNETOS 


235 


from  the  distributor  and  its  terminal  brought  to  within  one-third  inch  of  the  metal 
of  the  engine.  On  operating  the  press  button  a  strong  vibrator  spark  should  appear, 
if  the  battery  circuit-breaker  is  open;  and  if  the  battery  circuit-breaker  is  closed, 
a  single  contact  spark  should  be  seen.  If  this  is  the  case,  it  is  evidence  that  the 
coil  is  in  proper  condition. 

If  no  sparks  appear,  the  fault  is  located  in  the  spark  coil,  which  should  be 
returned  to  the  makers  or  to  one  of  their  branches  for  examination. 

3.  Motor  will  not  start  on  the  Pressing  of  the  Button.  It  should  first  be  ascer- 
tained if  the  motor  is  in  proper  working  condition,  and  if  the  cylinders  contain  mix- 
ture. To  secure  the  latter  condition,  a  few  drops  of  gasoline  may  be  injected  into 
each  cylinder  through  the  priming  cock.  It  should  then  be  ascertained  that  the 
switch  is  in  position  "B"  and  that  the  timing  control  lever  is  in  the  full  retard 
position. 

If  the  motor  will  not  start  on  the  press  button  under  these  conditions,  the 
switch  should  be  left  on  position  "B"  and  the  motor  cranked,  the  cylinders  again 
being  primed  with  gasoline. 


Bosch  Battery  Coil 


Fig.  1. 

BOSCH  VIBRATING  DUPLEX  IGNITION  SYSTEM. 

This  system  is  composed  of  the  magneto,  vibrating  coil,  and  switch.  The  ar- 
rangement is  such  that  ignition  may  be  had  from  battery  or  magneto  as  desired. 
The  complete  ignition  system  operates  on  one  set  of  spark  plugs. 

With  the  exception  of  the  D  and  DR  types,  practically  any  of  the  standard 
independent  Bosch  High  Tension  Magnetos  employed  on  the  automobile-type  en- 
gines can  be  used,  without  alteration,  in  connection  with  the  Bosch  Vibrating  Duplex 
System,  merely  by  the  addition  of  the  coil,  switch,  and  battery.  See  Fig.  2,  3,  and  4. 

In  case  of  Bosch  D  and  DR  types,  the  necessary  alterations  to  adapt  these 
magnetos  for  use  with  the  vibrating  duplex  system  can  be  made  at  any  Bosch  Branch. 

Care  and  Maintenance. 

Coil.  The  only  parts  of  the  coil  subject  to  wear  are  the  platinum  vibrator  con- 
tacts, and,  except  for  occasional  adjustment  of  these  contacts,  the  coil  requires  no 
attention.  The  adjustment  for  wear  is  effected  by  removing  the  coil  cap,  loosening 
the  hexagon  lock-nut,  and  slightly  screwing  in  the  slotted  adjustable  contact  screw. 
This  brings  the  platinum  vibrator  contacts  in  touch  with  each  other,  and  compensates 
for  whatever  wear  may  have  occurred.  This  adjustment  need  be  made  only  once 


236  INFORMATION 

or  twice  during  the  season,  but  when  made,  care  should  be  taken  to  tighten  the  lock- 
nut  firmly. 

Perhaps  once  during  the  season  the  adjustable  contact  screw  should  be  re- 
moved, and  if  the  contact  surface  is  uneven  or  in  bad  condition,  it  may  be  smoothed 
by  means  of  a  fine,  flat  jeweler's  file. 

When  cranking  an  engine  equipped  with  the  Bosch  vibrating  duplex  ignition 
system,  the  spark  lever  must  always  be  fully  retarded.  The  S  17  switch  should  be 
in  the  "battery"  position,  or  where  the  S  12  switch  is  used  the  press  button  key 
should  be  in  position. 

Troubles,  Cause,  and  Remedy. 

Since  the  battery  circuit  operates  in  conjunction  with  the  magneto,  faults 
due  to  the  magneto  will  also  appear  on  the  battery  side.  On  engines  which  can  be 
cranked  at  a  speed  sufficient  to  produce  ignition  from  magneto  direct,  the  magneto 
should  always  be  tested  independent  of  the  other  units  of  the  vibrating  duplex 
system,  by  disconnecting  the  low  tension  wire  leading  from  the  battery  to  the  coil, 
or  on  Bosch  Fly-wheel  starter  equipped  engines,  from  the  starting  motor  switch 
to  the  coil. 

If  the  coil  does  not  vibrate  when  the  switch  is  in  the  battery  position,  and  the 
engine  fails  to  start  when  cranked,  the  difficulty  may  be  due,  first,  to  the  battery 
voltage  dropping  so  low  that  the  vibrator  does  not  operate;  second,  to  chafing  of 
the  low  tension  wires  between  the  battery  and  the  coil,  or  between  the  starting 
motor  switch  and  coil.  Look  at  the  cables  and  see  that  there  are  no  broken  or  loose 
connections.  Such  an  interruption  in  the  battery  circuit  might  be  caused  also  by 
the  vibrator  contacts  not  being  in  touch  with  each  other.  See  that  the  contacts  are 
adjusted  so  as  to  just  meet. 

If  the  coil  vibrates  when  the  switch  is  in  the  battery  position,  but  the  engine 
fails  to  start  when  cranked,  it  should  be  determined  first  that  the  cylinders  are  re- 
ceiving gas  properly,  and  in  the  case  of  Bosch  Fly-wheel  Starter  equipped  engines, 
that  the  press  button  key  of  Switch  S  12  is  in  position.  Should  these  conditions 
be  correct,  the  difficulty  may  be  due  to  chafed  wiring  between  the  coil  and  the  mag- 
neto, magneto  interrupter  contacts  not  opening,  or  finally,  to  the  magneto  ground- 
ing terminal  being  short-circuited.  Any  of  these  conditions  will  allow  the  battery 
current  to  escape  to  ground  without  passing  through  the  magneto  primary  circuit, 
thus  preventing  the  induction  of  high  tension  current  into  the  magneto  secondary 
circuit. 

If  the  coil  does  not  vibrate  when  the  switch  is  in  the  battery  position,  but  the 
engine  starts  when  cranked,  the  difficulty  will  probably  be  found  to  be  due  to  an 
interruption  in  the  battery  circuit.  Under  such  a  condition,  the  starting  of  the  en- 
gine is  due  to  its  operating  on  the  magneto  direct,  and  the  wiring  for  the  battery 
circuit  should  carefully  be  gone  over  with  a  view  of  locating  any  possible  loose 
connection  or  break.  Should  the  engine  start  on  the  battery  side  of  the  system, 
but  fail  to  operate  on  the  magneto  side,  the  difficulty  will  likely  be  found  to  be 
due  to  either  magneto  interrupter  contacts  not  separating  sufficiently,  or  to  the 
spark  plug  gaps  being  too  wide. 

BOSCH   DUAL  IGNITION,  "DU"  AND  "ZR"  TYPE  MAGNETOS 
Connections. 

The  wiring  diagram  of  the  "DU4"  Dual  System  is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  It  will  be 
noted  that  while  the  independent  magneto  requires  but  one  switch  wire  in  addition 
to  the  cables  between  the  distributor  and  spark  plugs,  the  Dual  system  requires 
four  connections  between  the  magneto  and  the  switch.  Two  of  these  are  high  ten- 
sion and  consist  of  wire  No.  3  by  which  the  high  tension  current  from  the  magneto 
is  led  to  the  switch  contact,  and  wire  No.  4  by  which  the  high  tension  current  from 


MAGNETOS 


237 


Fig.  2. 


.Vo     1 

Arrangement  when  employing 
battery  of  an  insulated  return 
lighting  01  starting  system 


Fig.  3. 


No.  2. 

Arrangement  when  employing 
battery  of  a  ground  return 
lighting  or  starting  system,  or 
separate  battery  for  ignition. 


Fig.  4. 


No.  3. 

Arrangement  when  employing  S12 

I?      i.     .  _Switches    with     Bosch 
kn       Hy  wheel  Starting  System. 


238  INFORMATION 

either  magneto  or  coil  goes  to  the  distributor.  Wire  No.  1  is  low  tension  and  con- 
ducts battery  current  from  primary  winding  of  the  coil  to  the  battery  interrupter. 
Low  tension  wire  No.  2  is  the  grounding  wire  by  which  the  primary  current  of  the 
magneto  is  grounded,  when  the  switch  is  thrown  to  the  off,  or  to  the  battery  position. 
Wire  No.  5  leads  from  the  negative  terminal  of  the  battery  to  the  'coil,  and  the 
positive  terminal  of  the  battery  is  grounded  by  wire  No.  7.  A  second  ground  wire 

The  wiring  diagram  of  the  "ZR6"  dual  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  the  "DU" 
dual,  magneto  current  is  led  from  the  collector  ring  connection  to  the  coil  and 
back  to  the  distributor  terminal  that  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  distributor  plate. 

In  the  "ZR"  dual  magneto,  this  central  distributor  terminal  is  eliminated,  and 
the  current  is  led  internally  to  the  distributor  from  a  connection  on  the  shaft  end 
of  the  magneto.  To  expose  this  terminal,  the  shaft  end  hood  should  be  removed, 
which  is  done  by  withdrawing  the  two  screws  in  the  lower  flange,  and  sliding 
the  hood  backward.  The  terminal  will  then  be  seen  to  be  a  vulcanite  post,  with  a 
boss  that  projects  through  a  hole  in  the  hood.  In  the  top  of  this  post  are  two 
vertical  holes,  in  the  bottom  of  each  of  which  is  a  screw.  These  screws  are  to  be 
withdrawn.  The  ends  of  the  high  tension  wires  No.  3  and  No.  4  leading  to  the  coil 
should  be  cut  off  square,  and  after  being  led  through  the  holes  in  the  hood  are  to 
be  pressed  into  the  bottom  of  the  holes  in  the  boss.  The  pointed  screws  are  then 
to  be  replaced  in  the  vertical  holes,  and  in  being  driven  home,  will  pierce  the 
cables,  and  make  the  required  connections.  It  is  essential  to  use  a  screw  driver  of 
the  proper  size,  as  a  tool  with  too  large  a  blade  will  crack  the  vulcanite.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  apply  the  screw  driver  to  the  screws  vertically,  in  order  to 
prevent  breaking  the  vulcanite  due  to  side  pressure.  After  the  connections  are  made 
the  hood  should  be  replaced.  When  the  thumb-nuts  on  the  distributor  plate  are 
screwed  into  position,  the  edges  should  press  on  the  end  of  the  cable  insulation, 
thus  expanding  it  and  making  a  tight,  moisture-proof  fit  in  the  recess  of  the  cir- 
cular boss. 

Detection  of  Faults. 

In  the  event  of  a  failure  of  ignition,  it  should  be  determined  whether  the  defect 
exists  in  both  the  battery  and  the  magneto  side  of  the  system,  or  in  either  one 
of  them.  This  may  be  determined  by  throwing  the  switch  from  one  position  to 
the  other. 

If  there  is  a  continual  miss  in  one  cylinder  on  the  magneto  as  well  as  on  the 
battery,  the  fault  usually  lies  in  the  spark  plug,  which  will  be  found  to  be  fouled, 
broken,  or  to  have  too  wide  a  gap;  the  gap  should  be  from  .018  to  .020  inch,  ac- 
cording to  the  characteristics  of  the  engine. 

If  a  failure  is  found  in  all  the  cylinders  on  the  battery  as  well  as  on  the  magneto, 
the  probable  fault  will  be  a  short  circuit  due  to  a  failure  of  insulation  of  the  cables, 
to  improper  contact,  or  to  the  grounding  of  the  terminals;  the  fault  may  also  be  due 
to  a  broken  cable.  High  tension  cables  Nos.  3  and  4  should  be  examined. 

Magneto  Faults. 

If  the  switch  shows  that  the  magneto  is  at  fault,  all  the  cables  and  terminals 
should  be  examined  for  improper  connections.  The  coil  and  battery  system  may 
then  be  disconnected  by  removing  the  wires  from  terminals  Nos.  3  and  4  of  the 
magneto,  and  with  a  short  piece  of  wire  magneto  terminal  No.  3  may  be  connected 
directly  with  magneto  terminal  No.  4.  This  will  conduct  the  high  tension  current 
induced  in  the  magneto  direct  to  the  distributor.  The  grounding  wire  should  then 
be  disconnected  from  terminal  No.  2  of  the  magneto.  With  this  arrangement  it 
should  be  possible  to  start  the  engine  on  the  magneto,  and  it  will  be  necessary 
to  follow  this  plan  should  any  accident  happen  to  the  coil. 


MAGNETOS 


239 


To  ascertain  if  the  magneto  is  generating  current,  the  grounding  wire  should 
be  disconnected  from  terminal  No.  2  on  the  magneto,  and  the  high  tension  wire 
should  be  disconnected  from  terminal  No.  3  on  slip-ring  brush  holder.  If  the  engine 
is  then  cranked  briskly,  a  spark  should  appear  at  the  safety  spark  gap  that  is 
located  under  the  arch  of  the  magnets  on  the  dust  cover,  provided  the  magneto 
is  in  proper  condition.  The  grounding  wire  should  then  be  reconnected  to  terminal 
No.  2,  and  the  engine  cranked.  If  no  spark  appears  at  the  safety  spark  gap,  the 
trouble  may  be  determined  as  a  leakage  of  the  primary  magneto  current  to  ground 
by  chafed  insulation,  incorrect  connections,  or  an  injury  to  the  switch  parts. 

Battery  System  Faults. 

If  the  engine  misses  on  the  battery  and  runs  correctly  on  the  magneto,  the 
fault  will  usually  be  found  in  the  battery  itself,  the  voltage  having  dropped  too 
low.  Should  the  battery  show  the  proper  voltage,  the  battery  interrupter  should  be 
examined  to  observe  whether  the  lever  is  moving  freely  and  whether  the  platinum 
points  are  clean  and  properly  adjusted. 


Fig.  5. 


—WIRING  DIAGRAM  OF  THE     DL'4"    DUAL  SYSTEM 


Fig.  6. 


WIRING    DIAGRAM    OF    THE   "ZRO"    DUAL   SYSTEM 


240  INFORMATION 

The  coil  may  be  tested  by  disconnecting  wire  No.  4  from  the  magneto  and 
throwing  the  switch  to  the  battery  position,  operating  the  press  button  with  ter- 
minal No.  4  four  and  one-eighth  inches  from  the  metal  of  the  engine.  If  the  coil  is  in 
good  condition,  a  brilliant  spark  should  be  observed.  If  the  spark  does  not  appear, 
the  test  should  be  repeated  with  wire  No.  3  disconnected.  If  the  fault  persists,  the  coil 
body  may  be  removed  from  the  housing  by  withdrawing  the  holding  screw  that 
is  located  close  to  the  supporting  flange;  the  screw  should  then  be  unlocked  and  the 
end  plate  given  a  quarter  revolution.  This  will  release  the  bayonet  lock  and  the 
coil  body  may  then  be  withdrawn  to  permit  the  inspection  of  the  switch  contacts 
both  of  the  coil  and  of  the  stationary  switch  plate.  It  may  be  that  the  spring  con- 
tacts are  bent  or  otherwise  in  bad  condition.  The  withdrawing  of  the  coil  body 
and  its  handling  should  be  performed  with  extreme  care.  No  work  should  be  done 
on  the  coil  in  the  way  of  withdrawing  screws,  etc.,  and  if  the  inspection  does  not 
disclose  the  fault,  the  coil  should  be  returned  to  its  housing  and  the  whole  returned 
to  the  Bosch  Magneto  Company,  or  its  nearest  official  representative. 

BOSCH    DUPLEX    IGNITION    SYSTEM. 

The  following  points  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  mounting  the  ignition  system 
and  in  making  the  connections: 

The  timing  range  of  the  duplex  magneto,  the  speed  at  which  they  must  be 
driven  with  relation  to  the  engine  crank  shaft,  the  manner  of  drive,  also  the  pro- 
cedure in  connecting  the  high  tension  cables  from  the  magneto  to  the  spark  plugs 
in  the  cylinders,  are  all  exactly  the  same  as  with  corresponding  independent  Bosch 
types. 

The  battery  connections  and  the  connections  between  the  battery,  coil,  and 
magneto,  must  be  in  strict  accordance  with  the  wiring  diagrams.  A  six-volt  stor- 
age battery  is  recommended.  With  the  exception  of  the  cables  to  the  spark  plugs, 
all  connections  are  low  tension,  and  the  wiring  should  be  made  accordingly. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  battery  becoming 
grounded,  either  through  improperly  protected  terminals,  faulty  insulation,  or  short 
circuiting  among  dry  cells,  when  such  are  used,  or  their  grounding  to  the  metal 
battery  box  they  are  in. 

Setting  the  Magneto. 

The  magneto  is  to  be  secured  to  the  base  provided  for  it,  with  the  driving  gear 
or  coupling  loose  on  the  armature  shaft.  The  engine  should  then  be  cranked  until 
No.  1  piston  is  at  top  dead  center  of  the  compression  stroke,  and  should  be  main- 
tained thus  until  completion  of  the  installation. 

The  timing  arm  attached  to  the  interrupter  housing  is  to  be  placed  in  full  re- 
tard position,  which  is  accomplished  by  moving  it  as  far  as  possible  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  armature  will  be  driven.  The  cover  of  the  interrupter  housing  is  to 
be  removed  to  permit  inspection  of  the  interrupter,  and  the  armature  is  to  be  rotated 
in  the  direction  in  which  it  will  be  driven,  until  it  is  seen  that  the  magneto  inter- 
rupter screws  are  in  act  of  separating.  The  high  tension  wiring  to  the  plugs  should 
be  connected  in  the  usual  way. 

The  armature  is  to  be  held  firmly  in  that  position  while  the  driving  gear  or 
coupling  is  set  tightly  on  the  armature  shaft.  The  cover  of  the  interrupter  housing 
is  then  to  be  returned  to  position  and  the  setting  is  complete. 

The  setting  above  described  will  render  it  possible  to  operate  the  engine,  but 
the  engine  characteristics  may  make  it  possible  that  a  slightly  different  setting  will 
give  somewhat  better  results.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  with  the  interrupter 
breaking  in  full  retard  position  when  the  crank  shaft  is  about  five  degrees  over  the 
top  dead  center  of  the  compression  stroke,  more  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained. 

The  changes  made  in  determining  the  best  setting  should  be  very  slight,  a 


MAGNETOS 


241 


change  of  more  than  a  few  degrees  may  have  a  marked  effect  on  engine  operation. 
When  specific  instructions  for  magneto  setting  are  given  by  engine  manufacturers, 
it  is  recommended  that  they  be  followed  in  preference  to  those  given  here. 

The  instructions  for  care  and  maintenance  of  duplex  magnetos,  as  well  as  for 
locating  and  remedying  troubles,  are  the  same  as  for  other  Bosch  systems  as  de- 
scribed in  this  book.  See  Figs.  7,  8,  and  9. 


Wiring  Diagrams  for  the  Bosch  Duplex 
Ignition  System 


KSparA  F%jp 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


O-Off  Povfie,. 
B'Batfery  Optrvtity. 
H*  Magneto  Ofemfirtf. 


1      For  Types  "La2"  and  "Ma"  Coils 


2      For  Types  "Lai"  and  "Mai"  Coils 


Fig.  9. 


To  Spark   f/vy. 


8.     For  Type   "M"  C»U 


242 


INFORMATION 


BOSCH  TYPE  "K4"  DUAL  SYSTEM,  MAGNETIC  PLUG  IGNITION. 

Magnetos  of  the  "K"  type  operating  with  magnetic  plugs  for  the  production 
of  a  low  tension  ignition  spark  are  constructed  in  Dual  form,  the  principle  of 
operation  being  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  high  tension  dual  system. 

With  the  dual  system  it  is  possible  to  secure  ignition  either  by  magneto,  or  by 
battery  and  coil,  with  the  use  of  but  one  set  of  plugs.  These  plugs  are  connected 
to  the  magneto  distributor  in  the  usual  manner,  but  the  magneto  connections  are 
so  arranged  that  the  magneto  current  does  not  flow  direct  from  the  armature  to 
the  distributor,  but  passes  first  to  a  switch.  Through  the  operation  of  this  switch, 
either  the  magneto  current  or  the  battery  current  may  be  passed  to  the  plugs. 
See  Fig.  10. 

In  addition  to  the  magneto  interrupter,  the  magneto  is  provided  with  a  sepa- 
rate interrupter  for  the  battery  circuit,  one  being  located  immediately  below  the 
other. 

The  magneto  interrupter  is  of  the  usual  rotating  form,  whereas  the  battery 
interrupter  has  a  stationary  lever  operated  by  a  rotating  steel  cam  that  forms  part 
of  the  magneto  interrupter  disc.  The  two  interrupters  normally  operate  synchro- 
nously, but  if  engine  conditions  require  it,  the  battery  interrupter  may  be  set  to 
operate  somewhat  later  than  the  magneto  interrupter. 

The  coil  used  on  this  system  is  similar  in  outward  appearances  to  the  Bosch 
high  tension  dual  coil.  Its  windings  are  low  tension,  however,  and  it  is  not  pro- 
vided with  a  vibrator  of  the  usual  form.  The  button  for  self-starting,  located  in 
the  center  of  the  end  plate,  makes  and  breaks  the  battery  circuit  by  being  de- 
pressed and  released,  and  single  contact  low-tension  sparks  are  produced. 


Fig.  10. 

A  six-volt  battery  should  be  employed  with  this  system,  and  this  should  pref- 
erably be  a  storage  battery.  If  dry  cells  are  to  be  used,  ten  should  be  connected 
in  multiple  series.  The  cells  should  be  divided  into  two  groups  of  five  cells  each, 
the  cells  of  each  group  being  connected  in  series.  This  will  leave  a  positive  and  a 
negative  terminal  of  each  set  free.  The  positive  terminals  should  be  connected  to- 
gether and  grounded,  while  the  negative  terminals  should  be  connected  together 
and  led  to  the  terminal  No.  5  on  the  switch. 

The  system  must  be  wired  in  accordance  with  the  diagram,  and  in  making  the 
connections  it  is  most  advisable  to  use  regular  Bosch  cables  provided  with  Bosch 
loop  terminals.  Many  terminals  of  other  types  will  tend  to  permit  short-circuiting, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  the  coil  connections. 

Difficulties  in  the  battery  side  of  the  system  may  invariably  be  traced  to  de- 


MAGNETOS  ,243 

fective  wiring,  water  or  oil-soaked  insulation  of  the  cables,  or  a  cross  connection 
between  two  cables  or  terminals 

Should  this  system  operate  on  the  magneto,  but  not  on  the  battery,  the  battery 
should  be  tested  for  voltage,  and  examinations  should  be  made  for  loose  connections. 
If  the  battery  is  in  good  condition  and  the  connections  are  in  correct  order,  the 
battery  interrupter  should  be  inspected.  The  interrupter  lever  should  move  freely 
on  its  pivot,  and  its  platinum  contacts  should  be  free  from  oil  or  grit.  If  it  is  found 
that  the  lever  does  not  move  free  on  its  pivot,  it  may  be  removed,  and  the  fiber 
bushing  should  be  cleaned  of  any  dirt  or  gummed  oil  that  may  have  lodged  in  it. 
It  should  then  be  lubricated  with  a  small  drop  of  sperm  oil  and  replaced.  If  it 
then  does  not  move  freely,  the  bushing  should  be  lightly  reamed  out.  If  the  platinum 
points  are  corroded,  they  should  be  trued  by  means  of  a  very  flat  file,  but  this 
should  only  be  done  in  case  of  necessity. 

The  magneto  bearings  should  be  lubricated  with  twelve  drops  of  good,  light 
oil  every  two  weeks,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  ex- 
cess lubricating  oil  in  the  interrupter  parts.  The  interrupter  bearings  are  self- 
lubricating  and  do  not  require  oiling.  The  magneto  should  be  wiped  off  occasionally 
and  kept  free  from  dust  and  oil. 

Should  the  oil  become  injured  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  impossible  to  operate 
either  on  the  battery  or  on  the  magneto,  cables  No.  2  and  No.  4  should  be  discon- 
nected from  the  switch  plate,  and  one  of  these  cables  be  connected  directly  with  the 
other.  This  will  convert  the  dual  magneto  to  the  independent  form,  and  it  should  be 
then  possible  to  start  the  engine  directly  on  the  magneto,  and  to  operate  on  it. 

To  cut  out  ignition  with  the  Magneto  arranged  in  the  manner  described,  a  con- 
nection to  ground  should  be  made  with  either  terminal  No.  2  or  No.  4. 

EISEMANN   HIGH    TENSION   IGNITION    SYSTEM   TYPE   E.  M. 

This  dual  system  consists  of  a  high  tension  magneto  and  a  combined  trans- 
former coil  and  switch.  The  transformer  proper,  being  used  only  in  connection 
with  the  battery,  and  the  switch  used  in  common  by  both  battery  and  magneto 
systems. 

The  magneto  is  practically  the  same  as  the  single  ignition  instrument,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  changes  and  additions.  To  insure  reliability,  the  vulnerable  parts 
of  each  system  are  distinctly  separate  from  those  of  the  other. 

For  instance,  separate  windings  and  contact  breakers  are  used  on  each  system. 
On  the  other  hand,  parts  that  are  not  subject  to  accident,  or  rapid  wear,  are  used  in 
common,  so  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  duplication. 

The  wiring  diagram  of  this  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

EISEMANN  MAGNETO  WITH  AUTOMATIC  SPARK  CONTROL.     TYPES  ERa, 

EDa,   and  Eua. 

The  Automatic  Spark  Control  Magneto.      See  Fig.  12. 

It  is  of  the  same  construction  as  the  standard  high  tension  instrument,  with 
the  addition  of  the  automatic  mechanism.  The  automatic  advance  is  accomplished 
by  the  action  of  centrifugal  force  on  a  pair  of  weights  attached  at  one  end  to  a 
sleeve,  through  which  runs  the  shaft  of  the  magneto,  and  hinged  at  the  other  end 
of  the  armature.  Along  the  armature  shaft  run  two  helicoidal  ridges  which  en- 
gage with  similarly  shaped  splines  in  the  sleeve.  When  the  armature  is  rotated, 
the  weights  begin  to  spread  and  exert  a  longitudinal  pull  on  the  sleeve,  which  in 
turn  changes  the  position  of  the  armature  with  reference  to  the  pole  pieces.  In 
this  way  the  movement  of  greatest  induction  is  advanced  or  retarded,  and  with 
it  the  break  of  the  primary  circuit,  for  the  segment  (or  cams)  which  lift  the  cir- 
cuit breaker,  and  cause  the  break  in  the  primary  circuit,  are  fixed  in  the  correct 


244  INFORMATION 

Wiring  Diafimu»^E  M  Dual  4  cyL  and  D  C  Co»USejx»  WMag  for  D  C  R  Coil) 


(In  6  cylinder  type  that*  MW  •MentfaBy  two  extra     \/, 
cables  from  diitribu tor  to  plugs.) 


Fig.  11. 

position  and  thus  the  break  occurs  only  at  the  moment  when  the  current  in  the 
winding  is  the  strongest. 

Maintenance. 

Oiling.  A  few  drops  of  oil  injected  into  the  reservoirs  for  that  purpose  is 
sufficient  lubrication  for  about  1,000  miles.  In  the  single  ignition  instrument,  the 
distributor  shaft  is  fitted  with  a  wick  oiler  and  this  should  be  cleaned  every  six 
months  or  so.  This  wick  can  be  reached  by  removing  the  wick  screw.  To  insure 
correct  ignition,  all  wiring  connections  must  be  kept  tight,  and  the  cable  insulations 
must  be  protected  from  oil  or  chafing.  The  platinum  points  of  the  circuit  breaker 
must  be  kept  clean  and  correctly  adjusted.  They  should  open  about  1-64  inch. 

Safety  Spark  Gaps. 

If  the  plug  cables  are  fractured  or  broken  away  from  the  plugs,  or  the  electrode 
(spark  gap)  distance  is  too  great,  the  high  tension  current  discharges  itself  at  the 
safety  spark  gap,  which  is  fixed  on  the  armature  case  cover.  The  spark  is,  of  course, 
intermittent  and  it  is  a  simple  and  necessary  provision  from  otherwise  dangerous 
secondary  tensions,  to  the  insulations  of  the  armature,  and  the  other  current  con- 
ducting parts.  Never  alter  the  safety  gap,  and  see  that  the  long  cigar-shaped  high 
tension  conductor  is  always  in  contact  with  the  collector,  brush  holder  and  the  top 
of  the  safety  gas  cover.  If  the  spark  jumps  in  the  safety  gap,  you  may  be  sure 
that  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  wiring  or  the  spark  plugs. 

Wiring 

The  wiring  diagram  as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  wires  shown  by  heavy  lines  are 
high  tension,  and  thin  lines  are  low  tension. 


MAGNETOS 


245 


Locating  Troubles  and  Remedying  Them. 

If  the  motor  misfires  or  refuses  to  start,  an  examination  must  first  be  made, 
to  see  if  the  fault  lies  with  the  magneto  or  the  plugs.  If  only  one  cylinder  refuses 
to  fire,  the  fault  will  probably  be  found  in  the  corresponding  plug.  We  would 
suggest  in  this  event  a  change  of  plugs. 

Spark   Plugs. 

(1)  Plug  points  carbonized;  (2)  plug  points  too  wide  apart;  (3)  plug  faulty. 
Remedy — (1)  Clean  with  gasoline;  (2)  reduce  gap  between  points  to  1-64  inch; 
(3)  replace  by  new  one.  By  reason  of  the  very  powerful  spark  at  the  ignition 
electrodes  of  the  plug,  sometimes  little  metal  beads  are  formed  on  one  of  them 
which  will  be  short-circuit  in  time.  This  can  be  removed  by  filing  away  the  beads 
of  metal. 

Platinum  Contacts  Burned  or  Soiled. 

Remedy- — Clean  with  gasoline  until  the  contact  surface  appears  quite  white,  or 
use  a  fine  flat  file,  but  very  carefully,  so  that  the  surfaces  remain  square  to  each 
other.  The  gap  at  the  contact  point  should  not  amount  to  more  than  1-64  of  an 
inch,  and  as  the  contacts  wear  away  in  time,  they  must  be  regulated  now  and  then 
by  giving  screw  a  forward  turn  or  eventually  by  renewing.  By  loosening  screw 
the  whole  interrupting  mechanism  may  be  taken  out,  so  that  the  replacement  of  the 
platinum  contacts,  without  removing  the  apparatus,  can  be  easily  done  at  any 
time.  The  fixing  screw  of  the  make-and-break  is  held  fast  by  a  lock  spring  so  that 
it  is  impossible  for  this  screw  to  loosen.  When  it  is  desired  to  remove  the  screw, 
the  lock  spring  must  first  be  removed  by  turning  it  over  the  head  of  the  screw.  This 
spring  must  be  replaced  in  the  original  position  after  having  fixed  the  make-and- 
hreak  to  the  armature  by  means  of  the  screv/. 


fa  6  cylinder  type  there  are  essentially  two  extra  cables  from  distributor  to  plugs 


SPARK  PLU6S 


246 


INFORMATION 


Distributor  Plate  Soiled. 

Remedy — Take  out  distributor  arm  and  clean  all  the  contacts  of  the  distributor 
plate  with  gasoline. 

Irregular   Firing. 

Remedy — This  can  be   caused  only  by  the  improper  working  of  the   contact 
breaker.     Remove  the  cover  by  pressing  back  the  two  springs  holding  it  in  place. 


5 

n 

a 

P 

CD 

(D 

(D 

(D 

0 

<B 

be 


MAGNETOS 


247 


See  that  the  make-and-break  mechanism  is  well  in  place  by  tightening  screw  and 
also  that  both  platinum  contacts  are  rigid.  If  the  contact  lever  is  jammed,'  clean 
the  lever  axle  as  well  as  the  lever  by  lightly  rubbing  with  emery  paper  or  cloth 
and  slightly  oil  the  axle. 


Cables. 

(a)    Loosened;     (b)   broken;     (3)    wrongly  connected, 
(b)  replace;    (c)  consult  wiring  diagram. 


Remedy — (a)   Tighten; 


•38 
I? 


~-£ 

u  •* 


g 


(J 


g 

, 

S| 

r 

—  \ 

-s2 

1 

s,  \ 

^ 

i 

< 

i 

•  . 

i  - 
j^  ^ 

^^ 

S    i 

0^ 

"S  ° 

w    0 

3    * 

yj  6 

-   <J 

Pa 

i 

t*fc    1 

'? 

n  s 

i  ? 

Si 

[< 

y  s 

Is 

^^ 

zr^ 

o  o 

?U-0  . 

^^ 

^  Y 

2JS 

«E 

248 


INFORMATION 


Carbon  Brushes  Soiled  or  Worn. 

Remedy — Clean  with  gasoline  or  change  carbon  brushes.  If  the  examination 
so  far  has  not  led  to  detecting  the  defect  and  the  motor  will  not  start,  then  the 
carburetion  may  be  faulty. 

Magnets. 

A  re-magnetization  of  the  magnets  will  only  be  necessary  if  these  have  been 
taken  away  from  the  apparatus  and  allowed  to  remain  a  long  time  without  both 
ends  of  the  magnets  being  connected  with  a  piece  of  soft  iron.  The  same  thing 
occurs  if  the  armature  is  taken  out  of  the  pole  pieces  without  a  conducting  rod  of 
iron  being  laid  across  both  poles.  This  piece  must  remain  on  the  poles  until  the 
armature  is  again  placed  between  the  pole  pieces.  Often  the  magnets,  after  being 
taken  down,  are  put  back  in  the  wrong  position,  and  in  this  way  the  magnetic 
power  is  neutralized.  To  prevent  this  mistake,  all  magnets  are  now  marked,  the 
north  pole  being  designated  by  the  letter  "N"  stamped  in  the  magnet.  When  replac- 
ing magnets,  care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  same  poles  on  the  same  side. 


EISEMANN   MAGNETO,  TYPES   EA,   EU,    AND  ED,   WITH  MANUAL   SPARK 

CONTROL. 

The  magnetos  used  in  this  dual  system  are,  with  a  few  additions,  about  the 
same  as  the  regular  single  instrument.  The  types  EA,  EU,  and  ED  are  identical 
in  design  and  construction,  the  only  difference  being  in  size. 

The  coils  which  are  used  in  connection  with  these  magnetos  for  dual  ignition 
are  known  as  types  D2U,  DCR,  and  DT.  The  D2U  and  DCR  are  non-vibrating 
and  the  DT  is  equipped  with  a  vibrator.  The  D2U  and  DCR  coils  have  me- 
chanical vibrators,  actuated  by  means  of  ratchets  to  facilitate  starting  on  com- 
pression. The  DT  coil  has  an  electrical  vibrator,  which  is  set  in  motion  when  the 


Wiring  Diagram 


Fig.    15. 


MAGNETOS  249 

switch  is  thrown  to  the  "Bat"  position,  providing  the  battery  breaker  mechanism 
contacts  are  closed.  If  they  happen  to  be  open,  which  depends  upon  the  position 
of  the  motor,  by  pressing  the  button  on  the  coil-cover,  the  proper  connection  is 
established  and  the  vibrator  is  set  in  motion.  These  coils  embody  the  necessary 
switches  for  both  the  magneto  and  coil. 

The  wiring  diagram  of  this  system  when  using  DT  coil  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 
The  D2U  or  DCR  coil  used  in  connection  with  this  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 
This  cut  shows  the  use  of  the  D2U  coil.  The  DCR  connections  are  exactly  the  same, 
but  the  terminals  on  the  bottom  of  the  coil,  according  to  the  symbols,  occupy  differ- 
ent positions  on  the  plate.  Be  sure  to  always  wire  according  to  symbols.  • 

EISEMANN  HIGH  TENSION  DUAL  SYSTEM  MAGNETO  (TYPE  E.  B.)  AND 
TRANSFORMER  COIL  (TYPE  B.  D.)     See  Fig.  15. 

This  recent  product  of  the  Eisemann  Magneto  Co.  consists  of  a  magneto  gener- 
ating an  alternating  primary  current  only  and  a  combined  transformer  coil  and 
switch  in  which  this  primary  is  transformed  into  high  tension  current. 

The  care  and  maintenance  of  this  system  is  about  the  same  as  with  all  other 
Eisemann  systems.  The  setting  of  the  platinum  breaker  points  and  the  spark  plug 
gaps  are  the  same  as  with  standard  models.  The  wiring  of  this  system  is  shown 
in  Fig.  15. 

MEA    MAGNETOS. 

The  Mea  High  Tension  Magneto  has  bell-shaped  magnets  placed  horizontally 
and  in  the  same  axis  with  the  armature.  This  at  once  makes  possible  the  simul- 
taneous advance  and  retard  of  magnets  and  breaker,  instead  of  the  advance  and 
retard  of  the  breaker  alone.  See  Figs.  16,  17,  and  18. 

Timing  of  the  Magneto. 

The  greatly  varying  characteristics  of  different  motors  prevent  the  giving  of 
a  general  rule  regarding  the  best  timing  of  the  Mea  Magneto.  It  is  desirable  that 
the  magneto  be  timed  so  that  it  is  possible  to  give  the  motor  a  spark  as  far  ad- 
vanced as  it  can  stand  at  a  maximum  speed,  as  only  in  this  manner  the  maximum 
output  of  the  motor  will  be  obtained. 

The  Mea  range  of  advance  and  retard  is  great.  It  is  sufficiently  great  enough 
to  insure  a  retarded  spark  late  enough  for  cranking  and  low  speed  running,  no 
matter  how  much  advance  is  decided  upon.  If  the  motor  characteristics  with  regard 
to  possible  advance  are  unknown  it  is  advisable  to  try  to  determine  them  and  to 
proceed  as  follows: 

Unless  the  timing  of  the  magneto  can  easily  be  changed  by  advancing  or  re- 
tarding the  gear  driving  the  magneto,  the  coupling  should  not  be  keyed  to  the  tapered 
shaft  before  the  magneto  is  first  placed  on  the  motor,  but  it  should  be  clamped  on 
so  that  the  timing  may  still  be  modified  somewhat  if  found  desirable. 

Place  the  magneto  in  the  position  of  its  maximum  advance  by  turning  the  mag- 
neto housing  or  timing  lever  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  armature  rotation. 
Remove  cover  from  breaker  box  and  turn  armature  shaft  in  direction  of  rotation 
until  No.  1  appears  in  the  indicator  on  front  plate  of  magneto  and  until  contact 
breaker  begins  to  open.  Turn  the  motor  until  the  piston  of  cylinder  No.  1  is  from 
%-inch  to  %-inch  in  advance  of  dead  center.  After  magneto  and  motor  has  thus 
been  set,  effect  a  positive  connection  between  the  two. 

Connect  contact  hole  No.  1  of  distributor  to  No.  1  engine  cylinder  by  means  of 
the  cable  having  one  ring  on  its  contact  plug.  In  connecting  the  others,  be  guided 
by  the  numbers  on  the  distributor  and  by  the  succession  of  firing  strokes  of  the 
different  cylinders,  using  cables  with  rings  corresponding  in  number  to  the  num- 
bers on  the  distributor. 


250  INFORMATION 

The  motor  should  now  be  started  with  the  spark  fully  retarded,  and  by  increas- 
ing the  speed  gradually  it  can  readily  be  determined  if  the  motor  can  stand  all  the 
advance  which  the  magneto  with  its  present  setting  can  furnish,  or  if  this  advance 
might  be  further  increased.  After  it  has  been  assured  that  the  best  timing  has  been 
obtained  the  coupling  should  be  keyed  to  the  magneto  shaft. 

The  resetting  of  the  Mea  magneto  after  it  has  been  removed  from  a  motor 
for  cleaning  and  inspection  purposes  is  extremely  simple.  Before  removing  the 
magneto,  turn  the  motor  or  move  the  timing  lever  until  one  of  the  numbers  appear 
in  the  indicator.  Then  remove  the  magneto  by  opening  up  the  base  bearings,  and 
leave  the  motor  undisturbed  while  magneto  is  out  of  its  base. 

In  replacing  the  magneto,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  see  to  it  that  the  same 
number  as  before  is  appearing  in  the  indicator.  The  replacing  of  the  cables  can 
easily  be  done  according  to  the  number  of  rings  on  the  hard  rubber  sleeves. 

ATTENTION.  Remove  magneto  from  the  base  when  bolting  the  latter  to  frame, 
and  see  that  the  bolts  do  not  project  above  inside  surface  of  base,  as  otherwise  the 
bolts  may  injure  the  magneto  housing. 

In  tightening  the  nut  at  front  end  of  armature  shaft,  hold  the  armature  on  the 
coupling  and  do  not  try  to  prevent  it  from  turning  by  holding  it  on  the  breaker; 
the  latter  is  not  designed  for  this  service.  Be  careful  to  have  the  low  tension  wire 
well  fastened  at  the  terminal,  so  that  no  strands  will  touch  uninsulated  portion  of 
the  breaker  box. 

See  that  the  spark  plug  gaps  are  set  about  1-64  inch  apart.  The  distance  should 
not  be  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  thin  gauge  attached  to  the  small  magneto 
wrench,  which  is  also  used  for  adjusting  the  low  tension  breaker. 

Give  the  magneto  a  few  drops  of  good  oil  every  two  weeks,  but  do  not  flood 
it  with  oil.  Do  not  oil  the  breaker.  Never  remove  the  top  cover  supporting  the 
high  tension  carbon  while  the  magneto  is  running.  This  cover  contains  the  safety 
spark  gap,  and  if  operating  with  the  same  removed,  the  armature  winding  is  apt 
to  be  injured. 

Locating    Faults  in  the   Ignition   System. 

Faulty  Spark  Plugs. 

They  are  the  most  common  cause  of  misfires,  and  in  case  of  trouble  they  should 
therefore  be  inspected  first.  If  the  points  are  covered  with  soot  or  oil,  the  plug 
should  be  cleaned  with  gasoline. 

If  the  points  show  beads  which  short-circuit  the  plug,  they  should  be  removed 
and  the  normal  distance  between  points  re-established.  The  latter  should  also  be 
done  if  on  account  of  melting  away  or  for  some  other  reason  the  distance  between 
points  has  become  excessive.  This  distance  should  be  1-64  inch,  just  sufficient  to 
allow  the  gauge  attached  to  the  small  magneto  wrench  to  pass. 

Frequently  also  the  insulation  of  the  plug  is  broken  down,  in  which  case  a  new 
plug  is  required. 

Faulty   Cables. 

Noticeable  by  irregular  sparking  at  cylinder  end  of  cable  with  satisfactory 
sparking  at  magneto  end  of  same,  when  spark  tests  at  both  ends  are  made. 

To  eliminate  any  effect  of  faulty  spark  plugs,  test  for  spark  between  cable  and 
cylinder  body  with  magneto  terminal  of  cable  connected  to  magneto,  and  between 
cable  and  distributor  contact  of  magneto  with  cylinder  end  of  cable  connected  to 
cylinder  body. 

Grounding  of  Low  Tension  Wire. 

Make  sure  that  the  low  tension  wire  does  not  ground  on  the  cover  of  the  breaker 
box. 


1V1 


j  IN 


1  U 


Defective    Magneto. 

The  magneto  should  not  be  considered  at  fault  unless  spark  tests  between  dis- 
tributor contacts  and  magneto  housing  show  irregular  firing. 

If  the  magneto  is  proven  defective,  the  trouble  will  usually  be  located  in  the 
breaker.  The  platinum  contacts  burn  off  in  time  and  readjustment  becomes  neces- 
sary, although  this  should  be  the  case  only  at  very  long  intervals.  The  adjustment 
of  the  breaker  contact  points  when  fully  open  is  about  1-64  inch  or  slightly  more. 
The  small  gauge  attached  to  the  magneto  wrench  may  be  used  for  checking  this 
adjustment.  The  small  lock  nut  of  the  contact  screw  must  be  tightened  securely 
after  each  re-adjustment  of  the  contacts. 

In  addition  any  oil  or  dirt  reaching  the  contact  points  will  in  time  form  a  fine 
film  which  prevents  perfect  short-circuit  of  the  low  tension  winding.  If  the  con- 


252 


INFORMATION 


dition  of  these  points  is  very  bad,  or  if  a  complete  inspection  of  the  breaker  is 
desired,  the  latter  should  be  removed  from  the  breaker  box.  This  can  carefully 
be  done  by  loosening  the  long  center  screw  holding  the  breaker  to  the  armature, 
and  screwing  it  into  the  small  tapped  hole  provided  in  the  breaker,  so  that  it  may 
be  used  as  a  handle  in  lifting  the  breaker  out.  The  cleaning  of  the  points  should 
best  be  done  with  fine  crocus  paper,  or  if  necessary  with  a  very  fine  file,  after 
which  a  piece  of  very  fine  cloth  should  be  passed  through  between  the  points  so  as 
to  remove  all  sand  or  filings.  Special  care  must  be  taken  not  to  round  off  the 
edges  of  the  contact  points;  the  satisfactory  operation  of  a  magneto  depends 
largely  upon  the  perfect  contact  at  this  point,  and  the  whole  surface  of  the  con- 
tacts should  therefore  touch. 

In  replacing  the  breaker  the  small  pin  at  its  back  must  be  introduced  into  the 
slot  provided  for  it  in  the  armature  shaft  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  tighten 
the  center  screw  until  the  pin  is  in  its  proper  place. 

Another  cause  of  a  failure  of  a  magneto  to  work  properly  may  be  a  break- 


MAGNETOS 


253 


down  of  the  porcelain  cover  of  the  safety  spark  gap.  This  is  usually  a  result  of 
the  porcelain  injury  and  necessitates  a  replacing  of  the  cover.  It  can  readily  be  de- 
tected by  trying  the  magneto  with  the  spark  gap  cap  removed,  but  as  previously 
mentioned,  the  magneto  should  not  be  operated  in  this  manner  except  with  special 
care,  i.  e.,  at  very  low  speed  and  with  all  cables  connected  so  that  no  open  circuit 
can  occur. 

An  occasional  missing  may  be  caused  by  an  excessive  deposit  of  carbon  in  the 
inside  of  the  distributor.  This  can  easily  be  removed  after  loosening  the  two  screws 
holding  the  distributor  to  the  housing. 

It  should  be  stated  emphatically  that  as  a  rule  it  will  prove  best  to  leave  the 
magneto  alone  and  not  to  try  to  improve  it.  If  it  furnishes  a  spark  regularly  it 
is  doing  its  duty,  and  if,  notwithstanding  this,  the  motor  does  not  work  satisfactorily, 
the  cause  should  be  looked  for  at  some  other  point  of  the  equipment. 


254 


INFORMATION 


Assembling  of  Magneto. 

For  the  information  of  the  magneto  expert  only,  and  ift>t  in  order  to  encourage 
investigations  with  regard  to  the  inside  of  a  magneto,  the  following  points  are 
mentioned: 

For  the  satisfactory  operation  of  a  magneto,  it  is  essential  to  have  the  breaker 
open  at  the  proper  relative  position  between  armature  and  field.  The  output  of 
the  Mea  is  greatest  if  the  spark  occurs  after  the  armature  has  passed  through  the 
neutral  position  and  at  the  moment  when  the  distance  between  the  edge  of  the  ar- 
mature pole  piece  and  that  of  the  field  is  about  1-16-inch. 

In  assembling  instruments  with  distributors  the  proper  relation  of  the  armature 
and  distributor  gears  is  important,  as  at  the  moment  of  firing  the  distributor  car- 
bon must  be  on  one  of  the  contacts.  To  assist  in  assembling,  three  holes  are  drilled 
into  the  end  shield,  the  distributor  gear  and  the  end  plate  of  the  armature,  in  such 
a  manner  that  if  the  three  parts  in  question  are  assembled  with  the  three  h'oles  in 
line,  the  relation  between  armature  and  distributor  positions  is  correct.  All  that 
will.be  necessary,  therefore,  will  be  to  introduce  a  pin  into  the  hole  at  the  end 
shield  and  to  assemble. 

REMY   MAGNETOS   RD   TYPES. 

While  the  RD  type  is  not  reversible,  it  can  be  furnished  to  run  in  either 
direction  of  rotation,  but  the  adjustment  for  direction  of  rotation  is  made  at  the 
factory  and  cannot  be  changed.  Remy  magnetos  are  made  in  many  different  types, 
all  of  which  are  what  is  known  as  low  tension  magnetos. 

Attaching  Magneto  and  Coil. 

The  magneto  must  not  be  set  on  iron  or  steel  bracket  or  sub-base.  Aluminum 
or  brass  should  be  used.  Fasten  coil  by  screw  holes  provided  only.  Screws  must 
not  be  put  in  coil  or  coil  box,  even  though  the  screws  do  not  reach  through  the  wood 
or  fiber.  When  tube  oil  is  used,  the  holder  must  be  made  so  it  does  not  entirely 
circle  the  coil. 

The  magneto  must  be  wired  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  wiring  diagram 
as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  Each  of  the  three  oilers  of  the  magneto  should  be  given  a 
few  drops  of  oil  about  every  thousand  miles.  The  cam  is  lubricated  by  means  of 
a  felt  wick.  This  wick  should  be  inspected  often  enough  to  keep  it  from  running 
dry.  It  should  be  well  saturated  with  oil,  by  means  of  a  squirt  can,  whenever  it 
appears  to  be  getting  dry. 

Timing  Magneto  With  Motor. 

This  magneto  is  to  be  timed  to  the  motor  by  the  break  of  the  contact  points. 
When  the  piston  is  on  exact  dead  firing  center,  cam  house  must  be  in  full  retard 


Type  RD— Four-Cylinder  Wiring  Plan 

Fig.    19. 


MAGNETOS  255 

position,  and  the  platinum  points  must  just  be  separating.  The  high  tension  cable 
from  this  cylinder,  which  is  on  exact  dead  firing  center,  should  then  be  connected 
to  the  distributor  terminal,  corresponding  to  which  the  distributor  segment  is  oppo- 
site. The  remaining  distributor  terminals  should  be  connected  up  in  the  proper 
firing  order  of  the  motor. 

Spark  Plug  Points. 

Different  motors  require  different  plug  gaps.  About  .025  or  .030  inch  between 
the  sparking  points  is  best  for  most  motors.  If  motor  misses  fire  when  running 
idle  or  pulling  light,  plug  gaps  should  be  made  longer.  If  motor  misses  when  pulling 
heavy,  particularly  at  low  speed,  plug  gaps  should  be  made  shorter. 

Magneto  Adjustment. 

This  magneto  has  but  one  adjustment,  that  of  the  contact  screw.  The  adjust- 
ment should  be  made  so  that  the  maximum  break  of  the  platinum  points  is  between 
.025  and  .030  inch. 

REMY  TYPE  RL  MAGNETO  WITH  LE  COIL  OR  LC  COIL  AND  D  OR  H 

SWITCH. 

See  Figs.  20,  21,  and  22. 
Rotation. 

These  magnetos  are  set  to  run  in  one  direction  only.  When  ordering,  it  is 
necessary  to  specify  whether  the  magneto  is  to  run  clockwise  or  counter-clockwise, 
the  magneto  being  viewed  from  the  driving  end. 

Installation. 

It  is  absolutely  essential,  to  obtain  the  best  results,  that  the  magneto  be 
mounted  on  either  an  aluminum  or  brass  bracket,  or  base.  Magneto  must  be 
securely  fastened  to  the  base  by  cap  screws  or  bolts,  using  the  holes  which  are 
provided  for  this  purpose,  or  else  fastening  same  with  a  strap,  in  which  case  dowels 
are  used  in  the  magneto  base  instead  of  bolts  or  cap  screws.  Do  not,  under  any 
conditions,  drill  or  tap  the  magneto  base. 

Drive. 

The  magneto  is  to  be  positively  driven,  preferably  by  Oldham  coupling,  se- 
curely fastened  to  the  shaft  by  Woodruff  key  and  locked  by  nut.  Do  not  leave  the 
key  out  of  the  shaft,  because  the  coupling  is  liable  to  shift,  and  this  will  throw 
the  magneto  out  of  time. 

Timing  Magneto.  , 

Turn  the  engine  over  by  hand  until  No.  1  piston  reaches  top  dead  center  on 
compression  stroke.  Press  in  on  the  timing  button  at  the  top  of  the  distributor  and 
turn  the  magneto  shaft  until  the  plunger  of  the  timing  button  is  felt  to  drop  into  the 
recess  of  the  distributor  gear.  With  the  magneto  in  this  position,  make  the  neces- 
sary connections  to  the  motor.  Pay  no  attention  to  the  circuit  breaker  when  coup- 
ling or  setting  gears,  as  the  breaker  is  automatically  brought  into  the  correct  posi- 
tion, and  the  distributor  segment  is  in  contact  with  No.  1  terminal.  This  No.  1 
terminal  is  plainly  marked  on  the  distributor. 

Spark  Plug  Connections. 

The  high  tension  cable  from  distributor  terminal  No.  1  is  to  be  connected  to 


256  INFORMATION 

No.  1  cylinder  of  the  engine.     The  remaining  distributor  terminals  are  to  be  con- 
nected up  in  the  firing  order  of  the  engine. 

Wiring  Coil  to  Magneto. 

Red  wire  goes  to  ground  binding  post  in  timer  end  bearing.  Yellow  wire  goes 
to  contact  screw  post  on  circuit  breaker.  Green  wire  goes  to  insulated  screw  post 
on  timer  end  bearing. 

Coil  Connections. 

The  three  colored  wires  of  the  primary  cable  must  be  connected  to  the  terminals 
of  the  coiled  marked  Y  (yellow),  R  (red),  and  G  (green). 

Connecting  Battery  to  Coil. 

Connect  the  two  battery  wires  to  the  coil.  Use  either  6  volt  storage  battery, 
or  five  dry  cells  connected  in  series.  If  the  other  electrical  apparatus  on  the  car 
requires  a  ground  connection,  the  grounded  side  of  the  battery  should  be  connected 
to  the  coil  battery  terminal  marked  "R"  on  the  LE  coil  or  H  switch,  or  to  the  red 
wire  of  the  two  battery  wires  projecting  from  the  type  D  switch.  Be  sure  to  make 
good  tight  connections  to  all  terminals. 

Oiling. 

Two  oilers  are  provided,  one  at  the  rear  of  the  magneto  and  the  other  just 
back  of  the  top  of  the  distributor.  Give  each  of  these  three  or  four  drops  of  good 
oil  for  each  one  thousand  miles.  Be  careful  not  to  flood  the  magneto  with  oil. 

Magneto  Connections. 

The  control  arm  is  furnished  on  either  side  of  the  cam  house  as  convenience 
demands,  but  in  every  case  the  yellow  wire  must  be  connected  to  the  terminal  of 
the  platinum  pointed  contact  screw.  The  green  and  red  wires  must  be  connected 
to  the  G  and  R  screws  respectively,  which  are  located  on  the  timer  end  bearing. 

Spark  Plugs. 

The  gaps  between  the  points  should  be  between  .020  and  .025  inch.  If  the 
motor  misses  when  running  idle  or  pulling  light,  the  plug  gaps  should  be  made 
longer.  If  motor  misses  when  pulling  heavy,  particularly  at  low  speeds,  the  gap 
should  be  made  shorter. 

Circuit  Breaker,  Platinum  Contact  Points. 

These  points  may  be  inspected  by  removing  the  cam  house  lid,  or  the  cam 
house  may  be  entirely  taken  off  for  inspection.  The  points  should  have  clean,  flat 
surfaces  at  all  times.  Do  not  allow  dirt  or  grease  to  accumulate  on  these  points. 

Connecting  Spark  Control. 

In  connecting  spark  control  to  circuit  breaker  control  arm,  be  sure  that  both 
full  advance  and  full  retard  positions  are  obtained  and  that  movement  is  free  and 
positive.  The  last  link  in  the  control  mechanism  should  not  cause  any  cramping 
or  binding  of  circuit  breaker  at  any  position. 


MAGNETOS 


257 


2    O 


258 


INFORMATION 


MAGNETOS 


259 


260  INFORMATION 

SIMMS   HIGH   TENSION   MAGNETO   SYSTEMS. 

A  gasoline  engine  requires  regular  sparks  at  certain  predetermined  positions 
of  the  crankshaft,  and  as  the  high  tension  magneto  is  capable  of  producing  two 
sparks  per  revolution,  180  degrees  apart,  it  is  obvious  that  magneto  must  be  driven 
at  a  fixed  speed  ratio  to  the  crankshaft,  this  ratio  depending  upon  the  number  of 
sparks  required  by  the  engine  per  revolution.  So,  for  four-cylinder,  four-cycle  en- 
gines the  magneto  must  be  driven  at  crankshaft  speed.  For  four-cylinder,  two- 
cycle  engines,  the  magneto  must  be  driven  at  twice  crankshaft  speed.  For  six- 
cylinder,  four-cycle  engines,  the  magneto  must  be  driven  one  and  one-half  times 
crankshaft  speed,  and  for  six-cylinder,  two-cycle  engines  the  magneto  must  be  driven 
three  times  crankshaft  speed.  See  Figs.  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  and  28. 

'  The  magneto  must  be  driven  by  positive  gearing,  or  in  case  silent  chain  is  used 
for  driving,  care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  possible  back-lash  is  prevented,  and 
in  no  case  should  the  attempt  be  made  to  drive  the  magneto  by  means  of  friction 
devices. 

The  cam  which  actuates  the  contact  breaker  is  made  of  hardened  steel,  and 
accurately  ground.  This  insures  perfect  timing  and  prevents  uneven  wear. 

Three  oilers  are  provided:  one  on  the  driving  end  plate,  the  other  two  at  the  top 
of  the  distributor  end  plate.  These  oilers  lubricate  all  bearings  in  the  magneto  and 
should  be  given  three  or  four  drops  of  light  machine  oil  every  thousand  miles.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  not  over-lubricate  and  the  contact  breaker  should  never  be  oiled. 
These  magnetos  are  made  to  run  only  in  the  direction  shown  by  engraved  arrow  on 
the  driving  end  plate. 

MAINTENANCE  INSTRUCTIONS. 
Timing  of  Ignition. 

To  time  magneto  to  motor,  turn  engine  over  until  No.  1  cylinder  is  on  top  dead 
center  with  valves  closed  (beginning  of  working  stroke,  with  connecting  rod  swung 
over  on  downward  stroke  side);  remove  the  contact  breaker  cover  and  distributor 
board;  turn  magneto  armature  in  the  direction  it  must  run  until  the  platinum  con- 
tact screws  are  just  opening  with  the  timing  lever  in  the  full  retard  position  (the 
retard  position  is  obtained  by  pushing  the  timing  lever  down  in  the  same  direction 
the  magneto  armature  rotates).  The  distributor  carbon  brush  must  at  the  same  time 
be  in  position  to  touch  the  distributor  segment  serving  cylinder  No.  1.  Driving  gear 
or  coupling  should  be  securely  tightened  on  magneto  armature  driving  shaft,  using 
key  in  keyway  provided  on  shaft. 

Magneto  can  now  be  coupled  to  the  engine  (care  being  taken  not  to  change  the 
foregoing  adjustments)  and  wired  according  to  the  firing  order  of  the  engine.  It 
must  always  be  remembered  that  the  distributor  brush  rotates  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  armature,  and  that  No.  2  terminal  on  the  distributor  does  not  neces- 
sarily lead  to  No.  2  cylinder  of  the  engine,  but  to  the  cylinder  firing  after  that 
to  which  No.  1  leads.  The  same  applies  to  the  rest  of  the  terminals. 

Any  advance  or  retard  desired  in  addition  to  that  to  be  obtained  by  the  varia- 
tion of  the  timing  lever,  must  be  secured  on  the  engine  alone,  by  advancing  or  re- 
tarding the  engine  timing  gears,  but  in  no  case  should  the  setting  of  the  magneto 
distributor  or  internal  armature  gears  be  changed,  as  they  have  a  certain  fixed  re- 
lation to  each  other. 

Different  settings  of  these  two  gears  will  seriously  impair  the  efficiency  of  the 
magneto. 

Oiling  Magneto. 

The  magneto  should  be  oiled  every  two  weeks,  or  each  1,000-mile  run,  with  4 
or  5  drops  of  light  machine  oil  (not  cylinder  oil),  in  each  of  the  oil  holes,  which  are 
located  over  the  armature  driving  shaft,  and  at  the  top  of  the  distributor  board  at 


MAGNETOS  261 

the  back.     The  contact  breaker  should  never  be  oiled.     It  may  cause  serious  diffi- 
culty if  oil  is  allowed  to  remain  on  it. 

Care  of  Contact  Breaker. 

The  platinum  points  should  be  set  so  as  to  open  on  each  cam  about  one-sixty- 
fourth  of  an  inch,  or  the  thickness  of  an  average  business  card.  The  points  should 
be  kept  clean  and  free  from  oil,  and  make  flush  contact  with  one  another.  The  bell 
crank  lever  should  pivot  freely  in  the  housing,  which  can  be  slightly  reamed  out  if 
sticking.  The  contact  breaker  should  be  inspected  occasionally,  and  freed  of  dirt 
and  oil.  Only,  if  it  should  become  absolutely  necessary,  should  the  platinum  points 
be  trued  with  a  very  fine  flat  file. 

Distributor  Board. 

Cable  connections  should  be  kept  tight  and  occasionally  the  inside  of  the  board 
wiped  with  a  dry  cloth  to  remove  any  oil  or  dirt.  The  distributor  carbon  brush 
should  at  all  times  press  firmly  against  the  board. 

Safety  Spark  Gap. 

The  safety  spark  gap  is  to  protect  the  insulation  of  the  magneto  armature  from 
injury  caused  by  excessive  voltage,  which  would  occur  should  a  high  tension  con- 
nection come  loose  or  be  taken  off,  as  the  spark  will  then  jump  at  the  safety  gap. 
If  sparking  should  be  detected  in  the  safety  gap,  the  high  tension  wiring  should  be 
gone  over  carefully  at  both  the  magneto  and  spark  plug  ends.  The  distributor  car- 
bon brush  and  the  conductor  bar  should  be  examined  to  see  if  they  are  in  place  and 
making  contact.  Also  see  that  the  spark  plug  points  are  not  more  than  one-fiftieth 
(.020)  of  an  inch  apart.  If  sparks  can  be  obtained  at  the  safety  gap,  it  is  an  indi- 
cation that  the  magneto  is  generating,  and  that  the  trouble  is  most  likely  in  the 
wiring,  as  mentioned. 

Attaching  Couplings. 

Care  should  be  taken  when  driving  couplings  or  gears  are  attached  to  or  taken 
off  the  magneto  armature  shaft,  that  the  slip  ring  on  the  armature  is  not  cracked 
or  broken  by  violence  to  the  armature  shaft  or  magneto  end  plate. 

Spark  Plugs. 

The  plug  points  should  be  set  with  a  gap  of  about  one-fiftieth  of  an  inch. 
Greater  distances  than  this  will  cause  mis-firing  at  low  speeds  and  sparks  may  also 
occur  at  the  safety  spark  gap.  Testing  spark  plugs  out  of  the  cylinders  will  not 
give  accurate  information,  as  the  compression  of  the  cylinder  is  absent.  The  plug 
may  also  be  short-circuited  by  carbon.  If  the  plug  has  a  cracked  insulator,  the  spark 
may  short-circuit  in  the  cylinder,  but  may  spark  properly  when  out. 

Wiring. 

Cables  should  be  of  good  insulation  and  not  allowed  to  become  oil  soaked.  The 
cables  should  not  be  wrapped  or  grouped  in  a  non-metallic  tube.  Separate  them 
about  one-half  inch,  or  run  them  through  a  metal  tube,  care  being  taken  to  prevent 
cables  from  being  chafed  at  points  where  they  enter  or  leave  the  tube.  Terminals 
should  always  be  used  on  the  cable,  as  otherwise  loose  strands  of  wire  may  cause 
short-circuiting. 

Switch. 

Should  the  ignition  stop  suddenly,  the  trouble  is  most  likely  in  the  switch.  Re- 
move the  magneto  cable  leading  to  the  switch  and  see  if  the  magneto  will  then 
operate.  Also  remove  the  commutator  cover  on  the  magneto,  in  case  the  trouble 
should  be  there. 


262 


INFORMATION 


Dual  System. 

The  care  of  the  magneto  is  the  same  as  the  independent  systems,  but  the  mag- 
neto commutator  must  be  wired  strictly  in  accordance  with  diagrams,  as  it  will  not 
work  if  the  cables  are  reversed.  Where  dry  cells  are  used,  the  pasteboard  covers 
may  chafe  through  or  become  wet,  grounding  the  ignition  entirely,  or  cutting  out 
two  cylinders. 

WIRING  DIAGRAMS 

TYPE  SU4 


Fig.   23. 


SU4  CLOCKWISE  MAGNETO 


WIRING  DIAGRAMS 


Fig.    24. 


1 

SU6  CLOCKWISE  MAGNETO 


MAGNETOS 


263 


WIRING  DIAGRAMS 

TYPE  SU4-S 


25- 


SU4-S  CLOCKWISE  SYSTEM 

WIRING  DIAGRAMS 

TYPE  SU6-S 


Fig.   26. 


SU6-S  CLOCKWISE  SYSTEM 


264 


INFORMATION 


WIRING  DIAGRAMS 


TYPE  SU4-D 


Fig.    27  SU4-D  CLOCKWISE  SYSTEM 

WIRING  DIAGRAMS 

TYPE  SU6-D 


Fig.    28, 


SU6-D  CLOCKWISE  SYSTEM 


MAGNETOS  265 

SPLITDORF  MAGNETO  IGNITION,  MODELS  A,  AW,  AX  and  W,  X,  Y,  AND  Z. 

The  four-cylinder  models,  A,  AW,  AX,  and  X  runs  at  crank  shaft  speed,  and 
six-cylinder  models,  Y  and  Z,  at  one  and  one-half  crank  shaft  speed.  The  drive 
should  be  either  geared  direct  to  the  crank  shaft,  or  by  means  of  a  universal  coup- 
ling  known  as  the  Oldham  Coupling.  The  latter  method  is  very  much  to  be  preferred 
to  the  former,  because  the  accurate  setting  and  alignment  absolutely  necessary 
with  the  direct  gear  on  the  armature  shaft  is  not  essential  with  the  latter  method. 
See  Figs.  29,  30,  31,  32,  and  33. 

There  is  another  drive  possible — the  chain — but  on  account  of  the  many  wear- 
ing points,  back  slack,  and  other  faults,  this  should  only  be  used  where  gear  drive 
is  impossible  on  account  of  inaccessibility,  or  where  a  large  number  of  gears  are 
objectionable. 

If  the  Oldham  drive  is  employed,  the  driving  flange  is  first  slotted  to  fit  the 
Woodruff  key  supplied  with  the  magneto  and  then  fitted.  The  other  flange  of  the 
coupling  is  left  loose  on  the  end  of  the  pump  shaft  or  other  shaft  used  to  drive 
the  magneto,  and  the  cross  block  is  slid  into  place. 

Installing. 

After  securing  the  magneto  to  the  prepared  base  on  the  motor,  crank  engine 
until  cylinder  No.  1  is  exactly  on  firing  center,  that  is,  the  point  of  greatest  compres- 
sion. The  motor  must  remain  in  this  position  until  the  balance  of  the  work  is 
finished. 

Retard  the  spark  advance  mechanism  at  the  steering  wheel  to  its  limit  and  con- 
nect it  to  the  spark  advance  lever  on  the  breaker  box  of  the  magneto,  so  that  if  the 
magneto  shaft  revolves  in  a  clockwise  direction  looking  at  the  driving  end,  the 
breaker  box  lever  will  be  at  its  topmost  position.  If  the  shaft  revolves  lefthanded 
the  lever  should  be  at  the  bottom  limit,  and  advanced  upward. 

Now  revolve  the  armature  shaft  in  direction  of  its  rotation  until  the  oval  breaker 
cam  comes  in  contact  with  the  roller  in  the  breaker  bar  and  just  begins  to  separate 
the  platinum  points.  The  flange  of  the  coupling  can  then  be  drilled  and  reamed  for 
a  taper  pin,  and  the  timing  of  the  magneto  is  then  effected.  Then  connect  the  ter- 
minals of  the  magneto  to  those  of  the  transformer,  as  shown  in  the  wiring  diagram. 

After  ascertaining  the  position  of  the  bronze  sector  of  the  distributor,  connect 
the  cup  directly  over  it  to  the  spark  plug  in  cylinder  No.  1.  Since  the  direction  of 
rotation  of  the  distributor  is  always  opposite  to  that  of  the  armature  shaft,  the  wire 
from  the  cup  next  in  rotation  goes  to  the  next  cylinder  in  sequence  of  firing,  and  so 
on  until  all  wires  are  connected. 

On  six-cylinder  types  it  is  always  best  to  find  out  from  the  manufacturer  or 
agent  how  the  motor  fires,  because  there  are  a  number  of  ways  it  can  fire,  and  unless 
connected  up  in  the  right  sequence  of  firing,  the  results  will  be  very  bad. 

In  starting  the  motor,  always  retard  mechanism  to  its  limit,  throw  the  switch 
on  the  transformer  to  the  side  marked  "Battery,"  and  crank  the  motor. 

If  it  is  desired  to  start  on  the  magneto  side,  ignoring  the  battery  entirely, 
advance  the  spark  mechanism  about  half  way  or  two-thirds  of  the  way  and  crank  as 
before.  No  backfire  should  take  place. 

Do  not  drive  the  motor  with  the  spark  retarded,  but  as  far  advanced  as  the 
motor  will  permit.  This  is  easily  ascertained  after  driving  the  car  a  few  times. 

All  of  these  magnetos  can  be  changed  to  run  in  either  direction.  To  change 
from  one  direction  to  the  other,  remove  the  breaker  box,  hold  the  driving  end  of 
the  armature  shaft  firmly  with  a  pair  of  gas  pliers,  and  remove  the  little  nut 
which  holds  the  same  in  place.  Pull  off  the  cam  which  is  keyed  on  with  a  Woodruff 
key,  turn  the  cam  over,  replace  the  cam  and  nut  and  reset  nut  on  the  shaft  with  a 


266 


INFORMATION 


Fig.  29.       s 


Wiring  Diagram  of  Model  X  Magneto  and  "T  S  F"  Transformer 


Fig.  30. 


Wiring  Diagram  of  Model  W  Magneto  and  "T  S  B"  Transformer 


Fig.  31.       * 

T 


Wiring  Diagram  of  Model  Y  Magneto  and  "T  S  F"  Transformer 


Wiring  Diagram  of  Model  Z  Magneto  and  "T  S  B"  TranslowneT 


prick  punch  so  that  it  will  not  jar  loose.  Then  remove  the  distributor  block.  Also 
remove  the  insulated  brush  that  is  located  at  the  driving  end  of  back  plate  of 
magneto,  take  out  the  four  screws  that  hold  same,  then  remove  back  plate  and  slide 
armature  back.  This  will  bring  the  two  gears  out  of  mesh.  Then  set  the  armature 
back  in  mesh  so  that  the  position  of  the  segment  will  agree  with  either  Fig.  34  or 
Fig.  35,  according  to  the  direction  of  rotation. 


MAGNETOS 


267 


All  of  these  systems  absolutely  require  that  both  poles  of  the  battery  be 
brought  to  the  transformer.  The  battery  must  not  be  grounded  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. 

If  the  platinum  points,  after  much  usage,  become  pitted  so  that  a  bad  contact 
results,  they  can  be  dressed  flat  with  a  fine  file,  being  careful  to  not  file  off  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary.  When  resetting  these  points  be  sure  that  the  cam 
is  in  the  proper  position  and  that  the  points  open  not  more  than  .025  of  an  inch. 

The  gap  of  all  spark  plugs  used  with  these  magnetos  should  be  about  1-32  inch 
and  no  more.  Be  careful  not  to  over-lubricate  the  magneto  bearings,  but  be  sure  to 
oil  them  sufficiently  once  every  two  weeks  with  good  oil. 


To  Plugs 


Fig.  33. 


Wiring  Diagram  of  Model  A  Magneto  and  "T  S  A"  Transformer 

NOTE. — On  Models  AX  and  AW  Magnetos  the  wire  leading  to  "Post  A"  on  the  Trans- 
former Is  connected  to  the  Brush  Holder  at  the  driving  end.  of  the  Magneto. 


D  C 


Left  Hand    Magneto. 

Looking  at  Machine  from  Driving  End 
fioints  (S)  about  to  Open  as  Armature  Core 
leaves  Pole  Piece  about  1/16"  Segment  just 
trader  Brush. 

Fig.  34. 


Right   Hand    Magneto. 

Looking  at  Machine  from  Driving  End 
Points  (S)  about  to  Open  as  Armature  Ct*e 
leaves  Pole  Piece  about  1/ia".  Segment  jo* 
under  Brush. 

Fig.  35. 


SECTION  8 

ELECTRIC  TESTING 

Starting,  Lighting  and  Ignition  Systems 


ELECTRIC  TESTING 

Starting,  Lighting  and  Ignition  Systems. 

Realizing  that  nearly  every  motor  car  mechanic  is  called  upon  daily  to  repair 
or  adjust  something  about  the  electric  system  on  motor  cars,  we  have  gathered  the 
data  contained  in  this  book  and  have  pictured  the  tests  in  a  way  that  they  should 
be  easily  understood. 

Electric  troubles  are  easily  located  and  remedied  if  the  mechanic  understands 
the  simple  principles  of  electricity  and  electric  terms. 

To  all  who  are  new  at  this  line  of  work  we  especially  recommend  our  No.  1 
book  entitled  Elementary  Electricity,  Motor  Car  Electric  Systems  and  Delco  Light. 
This  book  explains  the  meaning  of  electric  terms  in  a  way  that  they  are  easily 
understood.  The  instruction  on  elementary  electricity  is  such  that  many  of  the  best 
schools  in  the  world  have  adopted  this  book  for  their  elementary  text. 

The  operation  of  an  electric  system  is  often  compared  to  that  of  a  water  system 
as  their  operations  are  similar  in  nearly  every  way.  Figures  1,  2,  3  and  4  are 
used  to  explain  the  first  principles  of  the  operation  of  a  water  system  which  may 
be  compared  to  that  of  an  electric  system. 


VALVE  CLOSED 


FIG.  1 


In  Figure  1,  the  pump  compares  with  the  electric  generator,  the  check  valve  with 
the  cut-out  relay,  the  valve  with  a  switch,  the  pressure  gauge  with  a  voltmeter, 
and  the  tank  with  a  storage  battery.  When  the  pump  is  operated  and  the  pressure 
of  the  pump  becomes  greater  than  that  of  the  tank,  the  check  valve  opens  and 
water  flows  to  the  tank. 

As  soon  as  the  pressure  of  the  pump  falls  below  that  of  the  tank,  the  check  valve 

269 


270 


INFORMATION 


closes  and  prevents  the  water  in  the  tank  from  flowing  back  to  the  pump  and 
being  wasted.  The  pressure  gauge  shows  the  pressure  in  pounds. 

When  an  electric  generator  is  operated  and  the  pressure  of  the  generator  be- 
comes greater  than  that  of  the  battery,  the  cut-out  relay  closes  and  permits  cur- 
rent to  flow  to  the  battery.  As  soon  as  the  pressure  of  the  generator  falls  below 
that  of  the  battery  the  cut-out  relay  opens  and  prevents  the  current  from  the  bat- 
tery flowing  back  upon  the  generator  and  being  wasted. 

A  voltmeter  shows  the  electric  pressure  in  volts.  When  the  valve  in  the  water 
line  is  opened,  water  will  flow.  When  a  switch  used  in  an  electric  system  is  closed 
current  will  flow. 


GAUGE 


VALVE  PARTLY  OPEN 


FIG.  2 


Figure  2  is  the  same  as  Figure  1,  excepting  that  two  pressure  gauges  are  used 
instead  of  one  and  the  valve  is  partly  open.  If  the  pressure  gauge  nearest  to  the 
tank  shows  50  pounds  pressure,  the  pressure  shown  by  the  other  gauge  will  be  less, 
due  to  the  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  water  by  the  valve,  which  is  only  partly 
open. 

The  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  water  by  the  valve  in  this  system  com- 
pares with  poor  switch  contacts  or  a  high  resistance  joint  or  connection  in  an  electric 
system. 

Figure  3  shows  a  clog  in  the  pipe.  If  the  valve  is  all  the  way  open  the  pressure 
shown  by  the  gauge  nearest  the  tank  will  be  much  greater  than  that  shown  at  the 
other  gauge,  due  to  the  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  water  by  the  clog  in  the 
pipe.  The  clog  in  the  pipe  of  this  system  compares  with  poor  joints  or  connections 
in  an  electric  system. 

Figure  4  shows  a  clog  in  the  pipe  from  the  main  line  to  the  tank.  If  the  pump 
is  operating,  the  pressure  shown  by  the  pressure  gauge  will  be  extremely  high,  due 
to  the  resistance  offered  to  the  flow  of  water  to  the  tank,  by  the  clog  in  the  line. 
If  the  pump  is  not  being  operated  and  water  is  taken  from  the  tank,  the  pressure 
shown  by  the  pressure  gauge  will  be  extremely  low  as  the  clog  in  the  pipe  will 
prevent  a  full  flow  of  water. 

It  often  happens  with  an  electric  system  that  when  the  generator  is  supplying 
current  for  lights  or  other  demands  that  the  voltage  rises  extremely  high,  and 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


271 


when  the  generator  is  not  running,  the  current  then  being  supplied  by  the  battery, 
the  voltage  will  be  extremely  low. 

When  the  generator  is  supplying  the  current  the  lights  are  exceptionally  bright, 


GAUGE 


FK3.  3 


-i=li-=  TANK 


_  CLOG  IN  PIPE 
GAUGE 


VALVE  OPEN 


FIG.  4 


and  when  the  battery  is  supplying  the  current  the  lights  are  exceptionally  dim.  In 
this  case  we  always  find  a  poor  connection  in  one  of  the  battery  lines  between  the 
switch  and  storage  battery.  In  the  water  system  the  clog  in  the  pipe  compares 
with  the  poor  or  loose  connection  in  the  electric  system. 


272 


INFOEMATION 


O    I  o 


H 


O 


o 


FIG.  5 


Figure  5  shows  a  number  of  symbols  which  are  used  in  the  various  illustra- 
tions. A  shows  a  motor  or  generator  brush.  B  a  field  coil.  C  a  motor  or  generator 
commutator.  D  shows  resistance  wire.  E  shows  a  cut-out  relay.  F  is  a  push 
button.  G  is  an  ammeter.  H  is  a  voltmeter.  I  and  J  are  contacts.  K  is  a  storage 
battery.  Study  these  symbols  carefully  and  compare  them  with  those  used  in  the 
illustrations.  In  doing  so  the  illustrations  and  parts  will  be  more  easily  understood. 


X 

0 

CD 
> 

H 

m 


o 


O 


FIG.  6 


Figure  6  shows  a  cranking  circuit  with  the  brush  lifted.  When  the  brush  is 
lowered  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  commutator,  the  motor  will  operate.  The 
upper  brush  acts  as  a  starting  switch.  When  the  systems  being  tested  are  of  the 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


273 


single  wire  type,  the  lower  line  from  the  battery  to  the  generator  or  the  motor 
should  be  considered  the  same  as  "Ground"  or  "Frame  of  Car."  This  applies  to 
all  illustrations  of  this  nature. 


STARTING  SWITCH 


FIG.  7 


Figure  7.  A  switch  is  used  in  the  cranking  circuit  showing  the  contacts  open. 
When  a  voltmeter  is  connected  at  the  terminals  of  the  battery  as  shown,  it  should 
always  show  six  volts  or  a  little  over.  In  this  case  the  battery  is  idle.  This  test 
is  of  little  value,  as  it  is  not  an  assurance  that  the  battery  is  charged  or  is  good. 

A  battery  while  idle  may  show  a  pressure  of  six  volts,  and  when  put  under 
a  load  the  voltage  will  drop  excessively.  Should  the  voltage  drop  excessively,  the 
battery  is  weak,  due  to  discharge,  or  may  be  defective. 


STARTING  SWITCH 


FIG.  8 


274 


INFORMATION 


Figure  8.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  closed  and  the  voltmeter  connected 
across  the  terminals  of  the  battery.  If,  when  the  starting  switch  is  closed,  the  volt- 
age drops  excessively,  the  battery  is  at  fault  and  the  trouble  is  likely  to  be  a  dis- 
charged or  defective  battery.  If  the  voltage  drop  is  not  over  1^  volts,  the  battery 
is  all  right. 


STARTING  SWITCH 


FIG.  9 


Figure  9.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  closed  and  three  positions  of  the 
voltmeter  connected  across  the  terminals  of  single  cells.  If  the  voltage  dropped 
extremely  low  when  making  test  as  shown  in  Figure  8,  then  tests  as  shown  in 
Figure  9  should  be  made,  taking  voltage  of  each,  cell  separately. 

If  the  voltage  of  all  cells  is  low,  then  it  is  likely  that  the  battery  is  weak, 
due  to  discharge.  If  part  of  the  cells  show  the  voltage  to  be  all  right  and  others 
show  low  voltage,  it  is  likely  that  the  ones  showing  low  voltage  are  defective.  To 
be  sure  of  this,  first  try  charging  the  low  cells  individually  and  see  if  they  can  be 
brought  up  to  a  charged  condition.  Then  make  test  again  as  shown  in  Figure  9. 

Figure  10.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  closed  and  the  voltmeter  connected 
to  the  terminals  of  the  wires  at  the  battery.  If  voltage  was  all  right  when  test 
was  made  at  the  terminals  of  the  battery,  as  shown  in  Figure  8,  and  there  is  a  de- 
cided drop  in  voltage  when  test  is  made  as  shown  in  Figure  10,  the  terminal  con- 
nections at  the  battery  are  loose  or  corroded. 

If  a  corroded  condition  is  found  they  should  be  cleaned  at  once.  To  remove 
corrosion,  first  take  all  of  the  battery  bolts,  nuts,  and  washers  off  of  the  battery 
and  put  them  in  a  strong  solution  of  cooking  soda  and  water.  Let  them  remain 
in  this  solution  for  10  or  15  minutes.  Then  use  a  stiff  brush  on  them  and  be  sure 
they  are  clean. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  scrape  them  entirely  to  remove  the  corrosion.  After 
they  are  cleaned  they  should  be  giv"en  a  good  coat  of  vaseline.  Clean  the  terminal 
posts  of  the  battery  with  the  same  solution,  being  careful  not  to  allow  the  solution 
to  get  into  the  battery.  Be  sure  to  give  all  terminal  parts  a  good  coat  of  vaseline 
before  and  after  they  are  assembled.  Then  make  test  as  shown  in  Figure  10.  The 
voltage  drop  should  not  be  excessive. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


275 


STARTING  SWITCH 


FIG.  10 


Tr- 


VOLTMETER 


FIG.  11 


Figure  11.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  closed  and  the  voltmeter  connected 
to  one  side  of  the  battery  and  to  one  side  of  the  switch.  If  the  drop  in  voltage 
is  great  at  this  point,  it  is  likely  that  the  switch  contacts  are  bad.  To  determine 
this,  make  test  as  shown  in  Figure  12. 

Figure  12.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  open  and  the  voltmeter  connected 
across  the  terminals  of  the  starting  switch.  The  voltmeter  should  show  the  full 
voltage  of  the  battery.  Then  make  test  as  shown  in  Figure  13. 


276 


INFORMATION 


STARTING  SWITCH 


i 


VOLTMETER 


FIG.  12 


STARTING  SWITCH 


VOLTMETER 


FIG.  13 


Figure  13.  This  shows  the  voltmeter  connected  across  the  terminals  of  the 
starting  switch  and  the  starting  switch  closed.  When  the  starting  switch  is  closed, 
the  voltmeter  should  not  show  a  reading.  If  it  does  show  a  reading,  the  starting 
switch  contacts  are  either  dirty  or  defective. 

Figure  14.  This  shows  starting  switch  closed  and  voltmeter  connected  to  the 
terminal  of  the  motor  and  one  side  of  the  battery.  If  voltage  is  all  right  at  this 
point  and  the  starter  fails  to  operate  properly,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  motor 
is  defective. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


277 


STARTING  SWITCH 
-O- 

-O- 


V)  VOLTMETER 


O 


FIG.  14 


The  troubles  may  be  due  to  worn-out  motor  brushes,  brushes  stuck  up  in  holders, 
brushes  not  properly  fitted  to  the  commutator,  weak  brush-spring  tension,  dirty 
commutator,  high  micas,  low  segments,  loose  or  poorly  soldered  connections,  or 
open  field  windings.  To  test  for  open  field  windings,  first  make  test  as  shown 
in  Figure  14,  and  then  make  test  as  shown  in  Figure  15. 


STARTING  SWITCH 


VOLT  METER 


FIG.  15 


Figure  15.  This  shows  the  voltmeter  connected  to  the  brush  end  of  the  field 
coil  and  to  the  battery.  If  voltage  was  all  right  when  test  was  made  as  shown  in 
Figure  14,  and  voltage  is  low  or  no  voltage  at  all  is  shown  in  test  Figure  15,  the 
field  coil  is  open  or  there  are  loose  or  poorly  soldered  connections  to  the  field  coil. 

Be  careful  to  note  the  position  of  the  starting  switch  at  all  times.  WHEN 
VOLTAGE  TESTS  are  made  the  starting  switch  should  be  closed. 


278 


INFORMATION 


STARTING  SWITCH 


FIG.  16 


Figure  16.  This  shows  the  starting  switch  closed  and  the  voltmeter  connected 
at  the  brushes  of  the  starting  motor.  If  voltage  is  all  right  at  this  point,  then  in- 
spect the  conditions  of  the  commutator  and  brushes  as  described  under  Figure  14. 


STARTING  SWITCH 


BATTERY 
GROUND^ 


FIG.  17 


Figure  17.  This  shows  starting  switch  closed  and  the  voltmeter  connected  to 
the  ground  terminal  of  the  battery,  and  the  other  side  of  the  voltmeter  connected 
to  the  frame  of  the  car.  If  the  voltmeter  shows  a  reading,  the  ground  connection 
at  the  frame  of  the  car  is  poor. 

Remove  the  battery  ground  connection  to  the  frame  of  the  car  and  clean  the 
connection  as  well  as  the  frame  of  the  car  at  the  point  where  the  connection  is  to 
be  made.  Then  give  the  cleaned  surfaces  a  good  coat  of  white  lead.  Attach  the 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


279 


terminal  to  frame  of  car  and  be  sure  that  a  good,  tight  connection  is  made.     Make 
test  over  again.     Voltmeter  will  not  show  a  reading  then. 


! 

*                   ) 

; 

C 

A_ 

) 

;                           c 

\-             ) 

O 

zc 

> 

T 

D                       \ 

K 

T 

u 

O 

^.i             w 

I— 

rViff                                    u                      ^ 

I  v  ;i                                     2                       '* 

< 

CD 

9 

~^                   ^ 

J, 

n                             v>                  J 

u 

>                                 (n( 

UJ                         ) 

O---. 

-                                    C 

)^ 

1 

i 

C 

{ 

_^                  ") 

FIG.  18 

Figure  18.  This  shows  a  method  of  testing  a  storage  battery.  To  make  this 
test,  first  secure  9  feet  of  No.  16  soft  iron  wire  and  wind  it  in  the  form  of  a  spiral 
spring.  Then  stretch  the  spring  so  that  when  the  ends  are  released  that  no  two 
coils  of  the  spring  touch  each  other  and  short  out  a  part  of  the  wire.  This  may 
be  used  as  a  resistance  unit.  Then  connect  voltmeter  as  shown. 

The  voltmeter  should  indicate  six  volts  or  a  little  over.  Leaving  the  voltmeter 
connected  to  the  terminals  of  the  battery,  connect  resistance  unit  as  shown.  If  a 
decided  drop  in  voltage  is  noted,  the  battery  is  either  weak,  due  to  discharge,  or 
bad  cells  'exist. 


-^ 


o- 


z 

D 
LJ 
U 

en 
10 
LJ 
en 


FIG.  19 


280 


INFORMATION 


Figure  19.  This  shows  three  positions  of  the  voltmeter  connected  to  a  single 
cell.  Leaving  the  resistance  unit  connected  to  the  battery  as  shown  in  Figure  18, 
test  each  cell  for  voltage  separately.  If  voltage  of  all  cells  is  alike,  the  trouble 
is  likely  due  to  discharge.  If  the  voltage  of  one  or  two  cells  is  extremely  low,  it 
indicates  bad  cells. 

Unless  you  are  experienced  in  battery  repairing,  it  is  best  to  take  the  battery 
to  a  battery  service  station.  When  the  resistance  unit  is  connected  at  the  terminals 
of  the  battery,  as  shown  in  Figure  18  and  Figure  19,  the  battery  is  being  discharged 
at  about  a  30-ampere  rate. 


AMMETER 


CONTACTS 

00  DO 


(V)  VOLT  METER 


FIG.  2O 


Figure  20.    This  shows  a  generator  wired  to  a  battery  with  an  ammeter  con- 
nected in  series  with  them  and  a  voltmeter  connected  across  the  lines  between  the 


CONTACTS 

— o-DD-0 — 


\ 


O 


FIG.  21 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


281 


generator  and  the  battery.  The  circuit  is  completed  by  hand  in  this  case.  In  many 
systems  when  the  ignition  switch  is  turned  to  the  "ON"  position  it  also  causes  these 
contacts  to  close. 

The  voltmeter  shows  the  pressure  of  the  generator  and  the  ammeter  indicates 
the  output  of  the  generator.  Connected  as  shown,  it  will  indicate  discharge  of  the 
battery  for  lights  or  horn. 

Figure  21.  This  shows  a  generator  wired  to  a  battery.  Contacts  are  closed 
by  hand.  Note  the  dotted  line  between  generator  terminals.  Field  regulators 
should  be  connected  to  these  two  terminals  in  all  generators  where  this  dotted  line 
appears  between  these  terminals. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY  B  C 


FIG.  22 


Figure  22.  This  shows  a  generator  wired  to  a  battery  with  a  cut-out  relay 
connected  in  one  side  of  the  line.  The  cut-out  relay  takes  the  place  of  the  contacts 
in  the  two  preceding  figures  and  is  automatic.  In  this  sketch  "A"  is  the  voltage 
winding,  "B"  is  the  primary  winding,  and  "C"  is  the  contacts. 

Figure  23.  This  diagram  is  the  same  as  Figure  22,  excepting  that  the  cut-out 
relay  contacts  are  closed.  The  cut-out  relay  closes  the  circuit  between  the  gen- 
erator and  the  storage  battery  when  the  generator  voltage  is  high  enough  to  charge 
the  battery. 

It  also  opens  the  circuit  as  the  generator  slows  down  and  its  voltage  becomes 
less  than  that  of  the  battery,  thus  preventing  the  battery  discharging  back  through 
the  generator.  The  cut-out  relay  is  an  electro  magnet  with  a  compound  winding. 
The  fine  voltage  winding  is  connected  directly  across  the  terminals  of  the  generator 
as  shown. 

The  primary  or  coarse  winding  is  in  series  with  the  circuit  between  the  gen- 
erator and  the  storage  battery.  The  contacts  are  closed  and  opened  at  contacts  "C" 
(see  Figure  22).  When  the  engine  is  started  the  generator  voltage  builds  up,  and 
when  it  reaches  about  7  volts  a  current  passing  through  the  voltage  winding  pro- 
duces enough  magnetism  to  overcome  the  tension  spring  (see  Figure  50),  attract- 
ing the  armature  to  the  core  which  caused  the  contacts  to  close. 

The  contacts  close  the  circuit  between  the  generator  and  the  storage  battery. 


282 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  23 


The  current  then  flowing  through  the  coarse  winding  increased  the  pull  on  the 
armature  and  gives  a  good  contact  of  low  resistance  at  the  contact  points.  When 
the  generator  slows  down  and  its  voltage  drops  below  that  of  the  storage  battery, 
the  battery  sends  a  reverse  current  through  the  coarse  wire  windings  which  kills 
the  pull  on  the  armature. 

The  tenson  spring  then  pulls  the  armature  away  from  the  core  and  the  con- 
tacts are  opened  and  will  remain  so  until  the  generator  is  operated  again. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  24 


Figure  24.  This  shows  a  bridge  between  terminals  "L"  and  "F"  of  the  gen- 
erator. When  an  external  regulator  is  used  and  generator  does  not  generate,  make 
test  as  shown  by  bringing  these  terminals  together  with  a  piece  of  wire.  If  gen- 
erator now  generates,  the  difficulty  lies  in  the  regulator  or  circuit  to  it.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  regulator  circuit  is  open. 


283 


FIG.  25 


Figure  25.  This  shows  an  ammeter  connected  across  the  primary  terminals 
of  the  cut-out  relay.  If,  when  the  generator  is  running  and  it  does  not  ciose  at 
the  proper  time,  test  as  shown.  If  generator  is  generating,  the  ammeter  will  show 
a  reading.  This  indicates  an  open  circuit  in  the  primary  or  coarse  wire  circuit. 

If,  when  armature  is  pressed  and  contacts  are  closed,  the  generator  charges  bat- 
tery, look  for  open  voltage  winding. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  26 


Figure  26.  This  shows  test  for  open  shunt  field.  Be  sure  to  disconnect  all 
wires  from  the  generator.  Then  use  test  cord  from  110-volt  circuit,  with  lamp 
cut  in  on  one  side  of  the  line  as  shown.  If  the  lamp  burns  at  all  or  there  is  a 
spark  when  the  two  points  are  touched  as  shown,  the  shunt  field  is  not  open. 


284 


INFORMATION 


AMMETER         CUT  OUT  RELAY 


SIX  VOLT  BATTERY 

0 

Q 

0 

Q 

FIG.  2.7 


Figure  27.  This  shows  the  ammeter  connected  near  the  generator  terminal, 
which  will  show  the  output  of  the  generator.  In  many  cases  short  circuits  occur 
in  the  lines  between  the  generator  and  the  storage  battery.  First  make  the  test 
as  shown,  which  gives  the  output  of  the  generator.  Then  make  test  as  shown  in 
Figure  28. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  28 


Figure  28.  This  shows  the  ammeter  connected  in  the  circuit  between  the  gen- 
erator and  the  storage  battery,  near  the  battery.  This  will  show  the  rate  the  bat- 
tery is  being  charged.  If  the  generator  is  generating  current  at  a  15  ampere  rate 
and  the  battery  is  being  charged  at  a  much  lower  rate,  there  is  a  loss  in  the  line 
due  to  short  circuits  or  grounds. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


285 


To  make  these  tests  be  sure  that  your  lights  are  not  burning,  and  if  ignition  is 
taken  from  the  generator  system  an  allowance  must  be  made  for  that. 

Figure  29.  To  be  sure  that  a  cut-out  relay  is  regulated  right,  connect  the  volt- 
meter across  the  generator  terminals.  Then  have  engine  running.  Watch  the  volt- 
meter and  cut-out  relay  closely.  When  the  voltage  of  the  generator  reaches  seven 
volts,  the  cut-out  relay  should  close. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


<fWW^ 
'h/WVWV-9 


or 

u 

i 

o 


* 


% 


FIG.  29 


If  the  two  circuits  are  all  right  through  the  relay,  then  note  the  tension  of 
the  tension  spring.  If  the  relay  closes  too  soon,  stiffen  the  tension  spring;  if  it 
does  not  close  soon  enough,  weaken  the  tension  spring.  Do  not  change  the  tension 
of  the  spring  very  much  at  a  time. 

While  doing  this  testing  it  is  well  to  slow  the  engine  down  and  then  increase 
the  speed  slowly,  watching  the  voltmeter  and  cut-out  relay  closely. 

Figure  30.  This  shows  the  reverse  series  type  of  regulation.  Note  that  the 
shunt  winding  is  connected  across  the  brushes  and  that  the  series  is  connected  in 
series  with  the  line  and  generator.  When  generator  is  generating  the  current  from 
the  generator  must  pass  through  the  reverse  series.  This  produces  a  bucking  effect 
against  the  shunt  winding. 

As  the  speed  of  the  engine  increases,  the  bucking  effect  increases  up  to  an 
average  speed  of  30  miles  per  hour.  At  that  time  the  bucking  effect  will  not  let 
the  shunt  field  build  up  any  higher.  It  may  be  said  that  the  generator  will  act  as 
a  constant  current  machine  at  all  speeds  above  30  miles  per  hour. 

If  it  is  necessary  at  any  time  to  increase  the  output  of  the  generator,  short 
circuit  the  reverse  series.  If  the  generator  is  of  the  motor  generator  type,  then  be 
sure  to  remove  this  short  circuit  before  attempting  to  crank  the  engine  with  the 
starter. 

Figure  31.  This  shows  the  mercury-operated  voltage  regulator.  The  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  voltage  regulator  are  as  follows:  Regulator  or  magnet  coil, 
mercury  tube,  plunger,  resistance  wire,  and  mercury.  The  regulator  or  magnet 
coil  surrounds  the  upper  half  of  the  mercury  tube.  Within  the  mercury  tube  is 
the  mercury  and  plunger. 

The  plunger  is  an  iron  tube  with  a  coil  of  resistance  wire  wrapped  around  the 


286 


INFORMATION 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  30 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  31 


lower  portion  on  top  of  a  special  insulation.  One  end  of  the  resistance  wire  is 
connected  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  and  the  other  end  is  connected  to  a  needle 
carried  in  the  center  of  the  plunger.  The  lower  portion  of  the  mercury  tube  is 
divided  by  an  insulating  tube  into  two  concentric  wells,  the  plunger  tube  being 
partly  immersed  in  the  outer  well  and  the  needle  in  the  inner  well. 

The  space  in  the  mercury  tube  above  the  body  of  the  mercury  is  filled  with 
an  especially  treated  oil  which  serves  to  protect  the  mercury  from  oxidization,  to 
lubricate,  and  to  form  a  dash  pot  for  the  plunger. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  Inasmuch  as  the  voltage  of  the  storage  battery 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


287 


varies  with  its  condition  of  charge,  the  intensity  of  the  magnetic  pull  exerted  by 
the  regulator  or  magnet  coil  upon  the  plunger  varies,  and  causes  the  plunger  to 
move  in  and  out  of  the  mercury.  When  the  battery  is  in  a  discharged  condition  the 
plunger  assumes  a  low  position  in  the  mercury  tube,  and  vice  versa. 

When  the  plunger  is  at  a  low  position,  the  coil  of  resistance  wire  carried  upon 
its  lower  portion  is  immersed  in  the  mercury,  and  as  the  plunger  rises  the  coil  is 
withdrawn.  Now  the  current  to  the  shunt  field  of  the  generator  must  follow  a  path 
leading  into  the  outer  well  of  the  mercury,  through  the  resistance  coil  wound  on 
the  tube  to  the  needle  carried  at  the  center  of  the  plunger,  into  the  center  well  of 
the  mercury,  and  out  of  the  regulator. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  as  the  plunger  is  withdrawn  from  the  mercury,  more  re- 
sistance is  thrown  into  this  circuit,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  current  must  pass 
through  a  greater  length  of  resistance  wire.  This  greater  resistance  into  the  field 
of  the  generator  causes  the  amount  of  current  flowing  to  the  battery  to  be  gradually 
reduced  as  the  battery  nears  a  state  of  complete  charge  until  finally  the  plunger  is 
almost  completely  withdrawn  from  the  mercury,  throwing  the  entire  length  of  the 
resistance  coil  into  the  shunt  field  circuit,  thus  causing  a  condition  of  practical 
electric  balance  between  the  battery  and  the  generator,  and  eliminating  any  possi- 
bility of  overcharging  the  battery. 

Figure  31  shows  the  mercury  tube  and  resistance  wire  that  is  wound  on  the 
plunger.  Also  shows  the  regulator  or  magnet  coil. 


FIG.  32 


Figure  32  shows  the  vibrating  regulator  type  of  regulation.  In  this  figure 
is  shown  a  combination  cut-out  relay  and  vibrating  regulator  combined  in  a  simpli- 
fied form,  so  they  may  be  easily  understood. 

The  relay  core  is  shown  above  the  coarse  winding.  "A"  is  the  regulator  con- 
tacts, "B"  is  regulator  resistance,  and  "C"  is  the  armature  of  the  cut-out  relay. 
The  operation  of  the  cut-out  relay  is  practically  the  same  as  described  under 
Figure  23.  The  regulator  is  set  so  as  to  start  to  vibrate  when  the  output  of  the 
generator  reaches  a  certain  amount. 

Each  time  the  armature  of  the  regulator  is  pulled  toward  the  core  of  the  regu- 
lator, contacts  "A"  are  opened,  inserting  resistance  "B"  into  the  circuit.  This  re- 
duces the  current  that  passes  through  the  shunt  fields.  At  higher  speeds  the  regu- 


288 


INFORMATION 


lator  vibrates  faster  and  keeps  the  resistance  in  the  circuit  a  greater  portion  of 
the  time,  thus  making  the  generator  act  as  a  constant  current  machine  at  higher 
speeds. 

Ninety-five  per  cent  of  all  troubles  of  a  vibrating  regulator  occur  at  the  reg- 
ulator contacts  "A."  They  become  dirty  or  burned.  If  burned,  smooth  them  up 
with  a  fine  jeweler's  file  and  then  finish  with  real  fine  sandpaper.  If  they  are  only 
dirty,  use  only  real  fine  sandpaper.  When  doing  this  work  be  careful  not  to  change 
the  tension  on  the  springs  containing  the  contacts. 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


FIG.  33 


Figure  33.    This  shows  the  circuits  of  a  generator  employing  third  brush  regu- 
lation. 


CONTACTS 

— o-Q[K> 


TO  LIGHTING  SWITCH 

11 

S' 

o 

0 

6 

9 

FIG.  34 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


289 


Figure  34.  This  shows  the  lighting  wires  tapped  off  the  two  lines  from  the 
generator  to  the  storage  battery.  There  is  a  corroded  joint,  or  connection,  at  "A." 
When  the  generator  is  running  and  supplying  current  to  the  system,  the  lights 
would  be  exceptionally  bright;  and  when  the  current  for  the  lights  is  taken  from 
the  battery,  the  lights  are  dim.  This  is  due  to  the  corroded  or  high  resistance  con- 
nection, as  shown. 


o- 


c 

LJ 

UJ 

S 
0 


HEAD 


FIG.  35 


Figure  35.  This  shows  a  standard  lighting  circuit  with  the  voltmeter  con- 
nected across  the  terminals  of  the  battery  and  switch  contacts  open.  The  voltmeter 
indicates  the  battery  voltage,  battery  idle. 


o- 


LIGHTING  O  SWITCH 


£T 
UJ 

f- 
UJ 

IZ 
H 

o 
> 


HEAD 


FIG.  3  6 


Figure  36.    This  shows  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  35,  excepting  that  the  light- 
ing switch  contacts  are  closed.    If  the  battery  is  good  and  is  charged,  the  voltage 


290 


INFORMATION 


should  not  drop  so  as  to  be  noticeable.    If  it  drops  when  lights  are  turned  on,  make 
test  as  shown  in  Figure  37. 


o- 


LIGHTING  6  SWITCH 


HEAD 


FIG.  37 


Figure  37.  This  shows  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  36,  excepting  that  three  po- 
sitions of  the  voltmeter  are  shown.  If  voltage  dropped  when  making  test  as  shown 
in  Figure  36,  test  each  cell  separately  for  voltage,  being  sure  to  have  all  lights  on. 
If  one  cell  is  lower  than  the  rest  it  may  be  bad.  If  all  cells  show  a  voltage  alike,  it 
indicates  discharge. 


FIG.  38 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


291 


Figure  38.  This  shows  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  37,  excepting  that  the  volt- 
meter is  bridged  across  the  lights  and  lighting  switch.  This  gives  the  voltage 
up  to  the  lighting  switch.  Full  battery  voltage  should  be  maintained  up  to  this  point. 


FIG.  39 


Figure  39.  This  shows  same  lighting  circuits  as  in  Figure  38,  excepting  that 
the  lighting  switch  is  in  the  off  position  and  the  voltmeter  is  connected  across  the 
contacts  of  the  headlight  circuit.  The  voltmeter  should  show  the  full  voltage  of  the 
battery. 


FIG.  4O 


Figure  40.  This  shows  same  lighting  circuit  as  in  Figure  39,  excepting  that 
headlight  switch  contacts  are  closed.  When  headlights  are  turned  on,  the  voltmeter 
should  not  give  an  indication.  If  it  does,  the  switch  contacts  are  bad  or  there  is 
a  bad  connection  in  the  switch  in  this  circuit. 


INFORMATION 


FIG.  41 


Figure  41.  This  shows  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  40,  excepting  that  all  switch 
contacts  are  closed  and  the  voltmeter  is  bridged  across  the  headlights  from  the 
switch  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  line.  The  voltmeter  should  show  full  voltage  up 
to  this  point. 


LIGHTING  O  SWITCH 


FIG.  42 


Figure  42.  This  shows  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  41,  excepting  that  the  volt- 
meter is  connected  directly  across  the  headlights.  There  should  not  be  a  drop  of 
over  one-half  volt  over  that  of  a  reading  taken  at  the  terminals  of  the  battery.  If 
voltage  is  all  right  up  to  this  point,  and  the  light  burns  exceptionally  bright,  the 
voltage  of  the  lamp  used  is  too  low  for  the  system. 

If  the  voltage  is  all  right  and  the  lamp  burns  exceptionally  dim,  the  lamp  is 
of  too  high  voltage  for  the  system  or  is  old  and  nearly  burned  out. 


E  L E  C  T  R I C    TESTING 


293 


AMMETER 


FIG.  43 


Figure  43.  This  shows  the  primary  winding  of  an  induction  coil  as  used  for 
ignition  purposes  connected  in  series  with  an  ammeter  and  a  six-volt  storage  bat- 
tery. This  is  a  practical  test  for  open  or  partially  short-circuited  primary  winding. 

If  ammeter  does  not  show  a  reading,  the  primary  winding  is  open.  With  the 
primary  winding  of  an  induction  coil  connected  in  the  circuit  as  shown,  about  ten 
amperes  will  flow.  This  will  vary  with  the  different  makes  of  coils.  If  an  excessive 
amount  of  current  flows,  it  indicates  a  partial  short  circuit  of  the  primary. 

To  be  sure  of  this,  first  take  a  coil  that  is  good  and  note  the  amount  of  current 
that  will  flow  through  the  primary.  Then  try  the  same  test  with  the  coil  that  is 
to  be  tested.  Be  sure  that  the  coils  used  in  these  tests  are  of  the  same  make  and 
construction.  If  in  doubt  at  any  time  as  to  the  construction  of  a  coil,  write  its 
manufacturers  for  this  information. 


VOLTMETER 


* 

£ 
% 

^ 


FIG.  44 


294 


INFORMATION 


Figure  44.  In  this  diagram  one  side  of  the  circuit  is  connected  to  one  end 
of  the  primary  of  the  induction  coil,  and  the  other  side  of  the  circuit  is  connected 
to  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil.  If  the  voltmeter  shows  a  reading,  these  two 
windings  are  either  connected  together  in  the  construction  of  the  coil  or  they  are 
shorted  together.  In  the  construction  of  some  coils  the  primary  and  secondary  are 
connected  together,  while  in  others  they  are  not  connected.  Be  sure  of  this  when 
making  tests.  Note  in  Figures  43  and  44  that  the  secondary  is  not  connected  to 
the  primary. 


VOLTMETER 


-o 


X 

0 

r 

CD 
> 

H 

m 


FIG.  45 


Figure  45.  This  shows  same  coil  as  shown  in  Figure  44.  The  voltmeter  is 
connected  in  series  with  the  secondary  winding  and  a  storage  battery.  If  the  stor- 
age battery  does  not  show  a  reading,  the  secondary  winding  is  open.  If  the  sec- 


VOLTMETER 


FIG.  46 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


295 


ondary  is  all  right,  the  voltmeter  should  show  a  reading  of  about  half  the  voltage 
of  the  battery,  or  three  volts. 

Figure  46.  This  shows  the  same  test  as  in  Figure  45,  excepting  that  the  pri- 
mary and  secondary  of  the  induction  coil  are  connected  together  in  the  construction 
of  the  coil. 


B 


TIMER 


O 


FIG.  47 


Figure  47.  This  shows  a  standard  battery  ignition  circuit  using  a  timer.  Note 
that  the  condenser  is  connected  across  the  timer  contacts.  By  making  and  breaking 
the  primary  circuit  at  the  timer  contacts  and  connecting  a  piece  of  wire  to  the 
secondary  terminals  of  the  coil,  as  shown,  a  spark  should  be  produced  at  the  ter- 
minals of  the  secondary.  Always  be  sure  to  have  a  condenser  connected  across  the 


_I 

RESISTANCE  UNIT 

*~\  r\  r\  m  .j.-.  , 

O 

h  n  n- 

•  \J   \J   V_f— 

1 

UCTION 

ID 

5 

9 

0) 
X 

0 
r* 

n 

" 

-2 

k 

A 

z 

,  \        TIMER 

(J 

CD 

t-e:^ 

<=&*    ' 

f  ; 

k^~  CONTACTS 

> 

H 

r-dHV*1 

^ 

Sr 

H 

A 

9 

n 

33 

-< 

I 

FIG.  46 

I 

296 


INFORMATION 


point  where  the  circuit  is  broken  when  making  these  tests.  Each  time  the  timer  is 
in  operation  and  the  contacts  open,  a  spark  should  occur  at  the  terminals  of  the 
secondary.  Have  a  one-fourth  inch  gap  between  the  secondary  terminals  and  the  wire. 

Figure  48.  This  shows  the  same  circuit  as  in  Figure  47,  excepting  that  a  re- 
sistance unit  is  connected  in  the  circuit.  A  resistance  unit  is  used  in  nearly  all  bat- 
tery or  generator  ignition  systems.  It  serves  to  regulate  the  flow  of  current  used 
for  ignition  and  protects  the  coil  if  switch  is  left  on  and  the  engine  is  not  running. 

To  test  the  condenser,  first  make  and  break  the  circuit  with  the  timer,  and  note 
the  sparking  at  the  timer  contacts.  Then  disconnect  one  side  of  the  condenser  and 
hold  this  connection  away,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line.  Now  make  and  break  the 
circuit  with  the  timer  and  note  the  sparking  at  the  timer  contacts.  If  the  con- 
denser is  good  there  should  be  considerable  difference  in  the  sparking  at  the  inner 
contacts  when  the  condenser  is  connected  and  when  it  is  not  connected. 


CONDENSER 


f 


LAMP 


FIG.  49 


Figure  49.  This  shows  another  method  of  testing  a  condenser.  If  the  lamp 
burns  with  the  wires  at  "A"  held  apart,  the  condenser  is  short-circuited.  If  the 
lamp  does  not  burn,  the  condenser  is  not  short-circuited,  but  it  may  be  open-cir- 
cuited. To  determine  this,  momentarily  bring  the  ends  of  the  test  wires  at  "A" 
together.  If  the  condenser  is  good,  the  spark  obtained  will  be  snapping  and  similar 
to  that  obtained  when  a  wire  is  connected  across  the  terminals  of  a  storage  battery, 
although  much  less  in  volume.  If  such  a  spark  is  not  obtained,  the  condenser  is 
defective.  It  would  be  well  to  compare  the  resultant  spark  obtained  at  the  wires 
at  "A"  with  and  without  the  condenser  in  the  circuit.  There  should  be  considerable 
difference  in  the  quality  of  the  spark.  With  the  condenser  in  the  circuit,  the  spark 
should  be  snapping  and  without  arcing.  Without  the  condenser  in  the  circuit,  an 
arc  should  be  noted. 

Figure  50.  This  shows  the  frame  of  the  cut-out  relay.  In  many  cases  the 
separating  rivet  was  filed  off.  This  rivet  is  there  to  prevent  the  armature  from 
touching  the  iron  core.  The  rivet  is  either  made  of  German  silver,  brass,  or  copper. 
These  metals  are  not  affected  by  magnetism. 

If  the  armature  should  touch  the  iron  core  it  would  form  a  complete  magnetic 
circuit,  which  might  cause  the  relay  to  be  slow  in  opening  or  it  might  not  open  at  all. 
Note  that  all  parts  of  the  relay  are  given  names  in  diagram. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


297 


TENSION  SPRING 

\ 

\ 


ARMATURE 

„ PIN 


ARMATURE 


HEAD 


CUT  OUT  RELAY 


CORE 


SEPARATING 
RIVET 


FIG.  5O 


CONTACTS 


V     V      V      V       *. 


WINDING  CONTACTS 

CIRCUIT  BREAKING  RELAY  FIG.  51 


Figure  51.  This  shows  the  frame,  contact,  and  armature  arrangement  and  the 
circuit  of  a  standard  vibrating  circuit-breaking  relay.  A  circuit-breaking  relay  is 
so  constructed  and  adjusted  that  when  over  a  certain  amount  of  current  flows  through 
it  it  will  vibrate.  It  takes  the  place  of  fuses. 

Figure  52.  This  shows  a  circuit-breaking  relay  in  a  headlight  circuit,  and  a 
fuse  in  another  headlight  circuit.  If  an  overload,  or  more  than  10  amperes,  passes 
through  the  fuse,  it  will  blow  and  open  the  circuit,  and  must  be  replaced  with  a 
new  one.  The  circuit-breaking  relay  is  set  so  as  to  start  vibrating  when  over  a 


298 


INFORMATION 


10  AMPERE  FUSE 


CONTACTS 


CIRCUIT 
BREAKING  RELAY 


CORE 
WINDING 


ARMATURE 


H 

m 
z 
(/> 

A 

en 

TJ 
3 

Z 
O 


FIG.  52 


certain  amount  of  current  is  taken  through  it.  It  will  vibrate  until  the  current  is 
turned  off  or  the  amount  of  current  flowing  through  it  is  back  to  the  amount  it  is 
set  for.  The  circuit-breaking  relay  acts  as  an  automatic  fuse. 


PRIMARY  WINDING 


CONTACTS 


FIG.  53 


V          V 
LIGHTING  SWITCH 


Figure  53.  This  shows  the  circuit  of  a  lockout  circuit-breaking  relay.  Note 
that  there  as  two  windings,  a  primary  and  a  holding  coil.  The  contacts  are  in  a 
closed  position. 

Figure  54.  This  shows  the  same  circuits  as  shown  in  Figure  53,  excepting  that 
the  relay  contacts  are  open.  When  an  overload  is  put  on  the  relay,  the  armature 
must  pull  toward  the  core  of  the  relay,  this  opening  the  contacts.  Before  the  con- 
tacts are  opened,  current  flows  only  through  the  primary. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


299 


m 


FIG.  54 


When  the  contacts  open,  current  flows  through  both  windings,  which  causes 
the  contacts  to  be  held  open.  They  will  remain  open  until  current  is  cut  off,  when 
the  armature  will  be  released  and  the  contacts  will  go  back  together  again,  and  will 
remain  so  until  an  excessive  amount  of  current  attempts  to  flow  through  the  relay 
again. 


Figure  55.  This  shows 'a  storage  battery,  resistance  unit,  ammeter,  and  wires 
to  be  connected  to  the  terminals  of  a  circuit-breaking  relay.  To  make  the  resistance 
unit,  secure  about  30  feet  of  No.  16  soft  iron  wire.  Wind  it  in  the  form  of  a  spiral 
spring,  and  then  stretch  the  spring  until,  when  released,  the  coils  of  the  spring  do 
not  touch  each  other. 


300 


INFORMATION 


To  set  the  relay  to  break  the  circuit  when  a  given  amount  of  current  flows 
through  it,  proceed  as  follows:  Be  sure  that  there  are  no  connections  between  ter- 
minals 1  and  2,  or  from  terminal  2  to  the  resistance  unit.  Then  connect  wires  3 
and  4  to  relay.  Now  connect  a  wire  to  terminal  2.  Then  touch  the  other  end  of 
this  wire  to  terminal  1  and  note  the  reading  of  the  ammeter. 

Less  than  ten  amperes  will  flow.  Now  touch  the  wire  that  is  connected  to 
terminal  2  to  the  coils  of  the  resistance  unit,  as  shown  at  "A."  "B,"  "C,"  and  so 
on,  watching  the  ammeter  each  time  contact  is  made.  If  the  relay  is  to  be  set 
to  break  the  circuit  at  15  amperes,  watch  the  ammeter  until  a  point  on  the  resistance 
unit  is  touched  when  that  amount  is  flowing. 

If  the  relay  has  a  tendency  to  break  the  circuit  before  15  amperes  is  reached, 
the  tension  spring  should  be  stiffened.  If  the  relay  does  not  open  at  16  amperes, 
the  tension  spring  should  be  weakened  until  the  contacts  will  open.  Then  test  again 
in  the  same  way. 

Do  not  attach  wires  from  2  terminal  to  the  resistance  unit  at  any  point.  Only 
touch  it  to  the  resistance  wire  long  enough  to  get  a  reading. 


PHILLIPS    TEST    SET    MODEL    302 

Your  garage  or  Service  Station  is  not  complete  without  a  reliable  electric 
testing  instrument.  We  believe  that  our  instruments  are  the  best  to  be  had  at 
any  price. 

We  are  pleased  to  refer  you  to  the  service  manager  of  any  motor  car  manu- 
facturer in  America. 

Standard  set  as  shown  in  cut  above  $25.00.  Special  set  with  voltmeter  reading 
from  0  to  15  volts  and  0  to  150  volts  with  same  ammeter,  cords  and  instruction 
book,  $30.00. 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


301 


STANDARD    MODEL   302 

This  is  a  new  design  and  is  very  small  and  compact.  The  cabinet  is  made  of 
oak.  Size  of  cabinet  is  9x6x4  inches. 

The  voltmeter  reads  from  0  to  15  volts  and  the  ammeter  reads  from  0  to  30 
amperes  either  way,  being  known  as  the  center  zero  type.  One  pair  of  No.  10  test 
cords  and  special  picture  instruction  book  are  supplied  with  each  set.  No  service 
station  or  garage  is  complete  without  this  instrument.  No  danger  of  injuring  the 
instruments  if  wrong  connections  are  made  in  testing  automobile  electric  systems. 
If  the  user  allows  the  ammeter  to  remain  in  a  circuit  too  long  where  the  drain 
on  the  battery  is  above  the  scale  reading,  the  attachment  cords  may  be  burned  up. 
In  this  case  it  will  cost  $2.00  for  a  new  pair. 

PHILLIPS    ENGINEERING   COMPANY, 

Dayton,    Ohio. 


FIG.  5  8 


Figure  58.  Method  of  increasing  or  decreasing  the  output  of  a  generator  em- 
ploying third  brush  regulation.  Dotted  line  represents  the  field  coil  circuit.  To 
increase  the  output  of  the  generator,  move  brush  "A"  toward  brush  "B."  To  de- 
crease output  of  the  generator,  move  brush  "A"  toward  brush  "C." 

Figure  59.  This  shows  top  view  of  a  cut-out  relay  with  primary  terminals 
numbered  1  and  2.  No.  3  is  the  frame  or  one  end  of  the  voltage  winding  of  the 
relay.  To  find  the  terminal  that  the  other  end  of  the  voltage  winding  is  connected 
to,  use  a  pair  of  test  cords  with  a  lamp  in  the  circuit.  Use  110  volts.  Touch  one 
end  of  test  cord  to  frame  of  relay  and  the  other  end  to  terminal  1,  and  then  to 
terminal  2. 

When  terminal  is  touched  and  lamp  burns  or  a  spark  is  produced,  this  is  the 
other  end  of  the  fine  winding.  This  terminal  should  be  connected  to  the  generator, 
and  the  other  terminal,  where  the  light  would  not  light  or  no  spark  was  produced 
when  touched,  should  be  connected  to  the  storage  battery. 

"A"  shows  contact  springs,  "B"  tension  spring,  "C"  armature  pin,  and  "D" 
is  the  armature. 


302 


INFORMATION 


FIG.  59 


Figure  60.  This  is  used  to  show  a  hydrometer.  This  is  the  part  that  is  in  the 
glass  barrel  of  a  hydrometer  syringe.  The  hydrometer  is  used  to  test  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  electrolyte  of  storage  batteries.  Directions  for  using  are  as  follows: 

After  removing  the  filling  plug  from  the  cover  of  the  cell,  compress  the  rubber 
bulb  of  the  syringe  and  insert  the  pipette  in  the  solution  of  the  cell  to  be  tested. 
Holding  the  instrument  as  nearly  vertical  as  possible,  gradually  lessen  the  pres- 
sure on  the  bulb  until  the  electrolyte  rising  in  the  barrel  causes  the  hydrometer 
to  float. 

In  general,  only  enough  electrolyte  should  be  drawn  to  float  the  hydrometer  free 
of  the  bottom  by  about  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The  specific  gravity 
reading  is  taken  on  the  hydrometer  at  the  surface  of  the  electrolyte  in  the  glass 
barrel. 

If  the  electrolyte  is  below  the  top  of  the  plates,  or  so  low  that  enough  cannot 
be  drawn  into  the  barrel  to  allow  of  a  proper  reading  of  the  hydrometer,  fill  the 
cell  to  the  proper  level  by  adding  pure  water;  then  do  not  take  a  reading  until  the 


ELECTRIC    TESTING 


303 


F 
G 


FIG.  60 


water  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  electrolyte.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  running  the  engine  for  several  hours. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  electrolyte  is  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  charge 
in  the  battery.  In  a  fully  charged  battery  the  specific  gravity  should  be  from 
1.275  to  1.300.  When  the  gravity  registers  from  1.150  to  1.175,  the  battery  is  prac- 
tically discharged  and  should  be  recharged. 

If  surface  of  electrolyte  is  at  "A,"  the  gravity  of  the  solution  is  1.100.  If  sur- 
face of  electrolyte  is  at  "B,"  the  gravity  is  1.150.  At  "C"  it  is  1.190.  At  "D"  it 
is  1.225.  At  "E"  it  is  1.260.  At  "F"  it  is  1.300.  At  "G"  it  is  1.320. 

The  solution  should  never  test  over  1.300,  and  if  it  does  test  over  1.300  it  should 
be  weakened  until  it  is  at  or  below  1.300  when  battery  is  fully  charged. 


SECTION  9 


Head  Light- 


1917  Internal  Circuit  and  Wiring  Diagrams 


1917  Abbott  Detroit— Remy   System 


305 


306 


I N  F  0  K  M  A  T  I  0  X 


NIMH 


Ahrens-Fox  Fire  Engine  Company — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


307 


1915  Alter — Remy  System 


308 


INFORMATION 


1913,  1914  and  1915  Auburn — Rehiy  System 


309 


1916  Auburn,  4-38,  6-38  and  6-40— Remy  System 


310 


INFORMATION 


*  5 


PHI- 1 1       p> 


Q-fr     Q-»" 


Auburn  Automobile  Company — Model  6-44 — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


311 


Auburn  6-39,  1917— Remy  System 


11 


312 


INFORMATION 


o  o 

*-    4-* 

o  o 


si 

.11 


O 

u.o  o 


- 
0<Q 


Austin  Automobile  Company— 12  Cyl,  Model— 19X7  Delco  System 


313 


1916,  1917  and  1918  Apperson— Remy  Ignition 


314 


INFORMATION 


Briscoe  Model  4-24— Remy  Igniton 


DIAGRAMS 


315 


w       \ 

N*      % 

Xs 
/*» 

n    ! 

i 

tb 

./ 

—  r 

\ 

t 

Briscoe  Model  8-38 — Remy  Ignition 


316 


INFORMATION 


8  Cyl.  Briggs  Detroiter — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


317 


Buick  Motor  Company— Models  D-44-45-46-47— 1917   Delco  System 


318 


INFORMATION 


5! 


>o  c>» 

OVO 

—  eg 


o 


Buick  Motor  Company — Models  D-34-35 — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


319 


Cadillac   Motor   Car   Company— Model    55—1917    Delco    System 


320 


INFORMATION 


CHALMERS  1916-17 

•Hi"  3 


BL, 

o 

\                   T 

] 

1 

li 
n 

Kin 

»n 

H 

I'I'H 

Chalmers    1916   and    1917 — Ignition — Remy    System 


DIAGRAMS 


.    321 


jfc 


1918   Chalmers — Remy    System 


322   . 


INFORMATION 


9**  I 


Cole   Motor  Car   Company — Model   880 — 1917   Delco   System 


DIAGRAMS 


323 


i 


• 


u'S 


Cole  Motor  Car  Company — Model  860 — 1917  Delco  System 


324 


INFORMATION 


111-* 


Commerce — Model   E — Remy   System 


DIAGRAMS 


325 


I' 


Dodge  Brothers — 1917  Delco  Ignition 


326 


INFORMATION 


Geo.  W.  Davis  Motor  Car  Co.— Models  6-H,  6-1,   6-K— 1917   Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


327 


^Hfcl 

! 


Geo.  W.  Davis  Motor  Car  Company— Model  6-J — 1917  Delco  System 


328 


INFORMATION 


u   ' 

c  -S 
.2     c 


8     § 


Elgin  Motor  Car  Corporation — Model   6-E-16 — 1917  Delco  Ignition 


DIAGRAMS 


329 


§ 


rs. 
o 


Elkhart   Carriage   &    Motor   Car   Company — 1917   Delco   Ignition 


330 


INFORMATION 


1915  Empire — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


331 


Enger  12  Cylinder— 1916  and  1917— Remy  System 


332 


INFORMATION 


General  Motors  Truck  Co.— Models  15,  25,  26,  30,  31,  40,  41,  70,  71,  100,  101 

1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


333 


Grant— Model  K,  1916  and  1917— Remy  System 


334 


INFORMATION 


1917    Harley-Davidson — E«my    System 


DIAGRAMS 


335 


1917  H.  A.  L.— Remy  System 


336 


INFORMATION 


\> 


Harroun  A  A   1 — Remy  System 


337 


300 

5x3 

fg- 
»»> 

5-5 

zztt 

EES 


00*. 


wo- 


1916-1917   Haynes — Remy   System 


338 


INFORMATION 


$li     0 

il  —  \ 
1© 

k       t- 

The    Haynes    Automobile    Co. — Models    40-40-R-41 — 1917    Delco    Ignition 


339 


Hudson  Motor  Car  Company — Super-Six  Model — 1917  Delco  System 


340 


INFORMATION 


1916  and  1917  Interstate— Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


341 


H"- 


1916  Kissel  6 — Remy  System 


342 


INFORMATION 


SJ.HOI7 


Q* 


<51Hp;i   OV3H 


&> 
& 


/wfrn  -ntft   Q+ 


MOJL/-M*     .      Awei1*  jw«o 

^-*^.»         o     > 


G't 

^M 

•"se 

35 

§s 
l| 

&J 

MW 


b  O 

2S 

n>  ja 

il 

g.2 
OQ 


;  A  W  JJ-i  W?  JtMWlUC 

The  Kissel  Motor  Company — 12  Cylinder  Model — 1917  Deko  System 


DIAGRAMS 


343 


1915  L.  P.  C. — Remy  System 


344 


INFORMATION 


1916  L.  P.  C.— Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


345 


l^-Tn 


/ 


/ 

c 

Df 

V) 

>^^7 

'3 
u 


I'     r. 


Of, 


Liberty  Motor  Car  Company — 1917  Delco  System 


346 


INFORMATION 


Madison  6-Cylinder — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


347 


Madison  8-Cylinder — Remy  System 


348 


INFORMATION 


KH*    c« 

U  -B-s 


- 

c  E 


Meteor  Motor  Car  Company — Models  75  and  80 — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


349 


Meteor  Motor  Car  Company — Models  75-A-80-A — 1917   Delco  System 


350 


INFORMATION 


9-M3 


O>     Oil 


Michigan  Hearse  &  Motor  Company — "Light  Six"  and  "Big  Six"  Chassis 

1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


351 


1914  and  1915  Mitchell  Lewis — Remy  System 


352 


INFORMATION 


Moon  Motor  Car  Company — Model  6-43 — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


353 


28 


Moon  Motor  Car  Company — Model  6-66 — 1917  Delco  System 


354 


INFORMATION 


1914  National — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


355 


c 

1 

7 

i 

i 

i 

j 

j 

\ 

i 

« 

.  j 

i    S 


M 


II 


National  Motor  Car  &  Vehicle  Corp. — Series  A-K — 1917  Delco  System 


356 


INFORMATION 


The  Nash  Motors  Company — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


357 


Norwalk  Motor  Car  Company — 1917  Delco  System 


358 


Oakland — Model  32 — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


359 


Oakland— Model  34-B— Remy  System 


360 


INFORMATION 


o  o 

ss 


CO 

o 

**'£ 

II 

II 

l>   O 

OU 

0100 
d  r-. 

O 


Oakland  Motor  Car  Company — Model  32-B — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


361 


U  "^ 

II 
II 


Oakland  Motor  Car  Company — Model  34 — 1917  Delco  System 


362 


INFORMATION 


Olds  Motor  Works— Model  37,  1917—1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


363 


Olds  Motor  Works— Model  45—1917  Delco  System 


364 


INFORMATION 


Packard  Motor  Car  Company — Models  2-25  and  2-35 — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


365 


Paige  1917— Remy  System 


366 


X 

v.5 


*> 


IIH 


1916  and  1917  Paige  6— Remy  Ignition 


DIAGRAMS 


367 


r— © — *•  ss 

<b 


CM 
£CM 


1 


I 

CO 

e 

si 
If 

c  E 

v  O 

OU 


W.  A.  Paterson  Company^— Models  6-45  and  6-45-R— 1917  Delco  System 


368 


INFORMATION 


The  Pathfinder  Company — 12  Cylinder  Model — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


369 


,§•5 


o 


Pilot  Motor  Car  Company — Model  6-45 — 1917  Delco  System 


370 


INFORMATION 


<rf 


"1 

r1 

'       ^"^ 

k"~"!  /'  \ 

N-s 


'^ 

I  u- 

;  H 

i 

K.            t 

^ 

1914  Premier — Model  M — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


371 


1915  Premier — Model  M-J — Remy  System 


372 


INFORMATION 


1915  Premier — Model  M — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


373 


Premier  Motor  Corporation — 6-B — 1917  Delco  System 


374 


INFORMATION 


Republic  Motor  Truck — Models  8  and  9 — Remy  System 


375 


Reo  1914-15— Remy  System 


376 


INFORMATION 


lti 


1916  Reo — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


377 


1916  Reo— Kemy  System 


378 


INFORMATION 


1917  Reo — 4  and  6  Cylinder — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


379 


C4MV7  «M* 


sfi 

1  1 

Tf 

%  if 

II" 


3 

2  * 
'52 
c  o 


a 
Se 

V  O 

GO 


Riddell  Coach  &   Hearse  Company — 1917   Delco  System 


380 


INFORMATION 


Scripps   Booth — Model  G — Remy   System 


DIAGRAMS 


381 


o 

I  e 

^     <: 


Q  =r 
ir  — ^ 

O  ~>.  i:  io          tf5 

$. 

Saxon  1916  and  1917— Remy   System 


382 


INFORMATION 


Stearns  S.  L.  K.  4 — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


383 


Stearns   1916,   1917   and   1918— Remy    System 


384 


INFORMATION 


!y-»    fo-fr 


Sayers  &  Scovill  Company — Model — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


385 


I 


e  e 

o  o 

ou 

m>4 

2S 


Stephens  Motor  Branch  of  Moline  Plow  Co. — 1917  Model — Delco  Systei 


386 


INFORMATION 


2? 


Sun  Light  Six — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


387 


1914  and  1915  Studebaker — Grounded  Battery — Remy  Ignition 


388 


INFORMATION 


Studebaker  1914  and  1915 — Ignition — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


389 


1916  Studebaker  Street  Flusher — Remy  Ignition 


390 


INFORMATION 


Studebaker  1916  and   1917— Remy   Ignition 


DIAGRAMS 


391 


1914  and   1915   Stutz— Remy   System 


392 


INFORMATION 


1916  and  1917  Sweeney  Tractor— Remy  System 


393 


1916  and  1917  Stutz— Remy  System 


394 


•-.•2 

3  C 


OQ 


8 


21 
ll 


Trompenburg — Amsterdam,  Holland — 1917  Delco  System 


DIAGRAMS 


395 


Velie  22— 1916— Remy   System 


396 


INFORMATION 


Velie — Model  L-28 — Remy  System 


DIAGRAMS 


397 


If* 


X 

°*fl»- 

¥ 

J 

< 

3 

Q 

•A 

$ 

I 

c* 

UljU 


Westcott  Motor  Car  Company — Series  17 — 1917  Delco  System 


THE  ABINGDON  PRESS,  CINCINNATI 


"INFORMATION" 

Printed  and  bound  by 

THE  ABINGDON   PRESS 


C  I  N  C  I  N  N  AT  I 


AUTHORIZED   PUBLISHERS   FOR  THE 
PUBLICATIONS  OF 


H.   E.   PHILLIPS   &   CO 

DAYTON,   OHIO 


&.  E. 

South  Wilton  Place 


